Bangladesh Kon Pathe

By Monir Hossen

7 years ago

Bangladesh, History, Politics, Essays, Russian Revolution, French Revolution, Westphalia pact, Two Camps

Ard, Islam, Mal, Provision

Sukuk

Sustainability

International Trade

Organisation Tags (2)

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―The Seven Social Sins are: Wealth without work. Pleasure without conscience. Knowledge without character. Commerce without morality. Science without humanity. Worship without sacrifice. Politics without principle. From a sermon given by Frederick Lewis Donaldson in Westminster Abbey, London, on March 20, 1925.‖ 7
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c ÖvK& K_Y 500 Lªx÷vã †_‡K 1648 Lªx÷vã ch©šÍ c„w_exi ivóªxq e¨e¯’vi †h BwZnvm Rvbv hvq Zv‡Z AvaywbK ivóªxq e¨e¯’vi g‡Zv †Kvb ivóªxq e¨e¯’vi cÖPjb wQ‡jv bv| gvbyl ZLb †MvÎ, ivRv, ev mvgªv‡R¨i Aax‡b wQ‡jv †hLv‡b †MvÎcwZ, ivRv ev KwZcq we‡kl †jvK‡`i nv‡Z mxgve× hviv cÖPwjZ cÖ_v ev agx©q Abykvm‡bi wfwË‡Z ÿgZv cwiPvjbv KiZ| GB mgqKv‡j †Mv‡Î †ÿ‡Î weev` †hgb †j‡M _vKZ †Zgwb eÜzZ¡I n‡Zv| kw³kvjx †MvÎ ev ivR¨ A‡cÿvK…Z `ye©j †MvÎ ev ivR¨ `Lj K‡i wb‡Zv| A‡bK mgq mivmwi kvmbKvh© cwiPvjbv KiZ Avevi A‡bK mgq bRivbvi wewbg‡q gy³ K‡i w`‡Zv| e¨emv evwY‡R¨i cÖPjb _vK‡jI Zv wQ‡jv mxwgZ| 1962 Lªxt †_‡K 1648 Lªxt ch©šÍ †ivgvb mvgªv‡R¨i AvwacZ¨ wQj| GUv Rvg©vbx, †b`vij¨vÛm, †ejwRqvg, myBRvij¨vÛ, d«v‡Ýi wKQz Ask Ges BUvwj wb‡q MwVZ n‡qwQj| g~jZt GUvB wQ‡jv BD‡iv‡ci ga¨ hyMxq mvgªvR¨ev`| GB mgqKv‡j gvby‡li wek¦vm wQ‡jv ivóª kvmb Kivi ÿgZv Ck¦i cÖ`Ë, RbMY KZ…©K cÖ`Ë bq| Avi ivRv n‡jb †cvc ev agx©q ¸iæ ev ag© hvR‡Ki Aaxb| Z‡e KLbI KLbI †Kvb †Kvb ivRv ev ev`kv‡K Gi cÖwZev` Ki‡ZI †`Lv †M‡Q| †hgb A÷g †nbix| wKš‘ 1648 mv‡j I‡q÷‡dwjqvi Pzw³ m¤úvw`Z nIqvi ci †_‡K AvaywbK ivóª e¨e¯’vi m„wó nq| MxR©vi ÿgZv Le© Kiv nq 9
Ges RbM ‡Yi ÿgZv cÖwZwôZ Kiv nq| AvaywbK ivóª e¨e¯’vi avibv GLvb †_‡KB cÖwZwôZ nq| GB mgqKv‡jB 1789 †_‡K 1799 mvj ch©šÍ divmx wecøe msNwUZ nq| GB mgqKv‡jB 1803 mvj †_‡K 1815 mvj ch©šÍ †b‡cvwjqvb BD‡ivcxq wewfbœ kw³i mv‡_ msN‡l© wjß nb| Ae‡k‡l IqvUvijyÕi hy‡× wWDK Ae I‡qwjsU‡bi nv‡Z wZwb civwRZ n‡j weªwUk AvwacZ¨ cÖwZwôZ nq hv cÖvq cÖ_g wek¦h× y ch©šÍ envj wQ‡jv| 1914 mv‡j cÖ_g wekhy× ïiæ n‡j Zv 1918 mvj ch©šÍ envj _v‡K| Gw`‡K Bsj¨vÛ, d«vÝ, ivwkqv Ges Ab¨vb¨ wgÎ ivóª Ab¨vw`‡K Rvgv©bx, A‡÷ªv nv‡½ix Ges eyj‡Mwiqv| GB hy‡×i d‡j BD‡iv‡c A‡Uvgvb mvgªv‡R¨i cZb nq Ges †LjvdZ cÖ_v evwZj n‡q hvq| me‡P‡q Aw¯’i mgqKvjUv Av‡m Gi ciciB| 1914 mv‡j †_‡K 1945 mvj| 1929 mv‡ji gnvg›`v GB mgqKv‡j‡B msNwUZ nq| bvrmxev‡`i DÌvb nq| Ges wnUjvi mviv c„w_exi R‡b¨ ûgwK n‡q †`Lv †`q| 1938 mv‡j wnUjvi Aw÷ªqv Avµgb K‡i em‡j wgDwbL Kbdv‡i‡Ýi gva¨‡g Zvi mgvav‡bi †Póv Kiv nq| wKš‘ 1939 mv‡j wnUjvi cybivq ‡cvj¨vÛ `Lj K‡i em‡j wØZxq wek¦hy× †e‡a hvq hv 1945 mvj ch©šÍ envj _v‡K| jxM Ae †bkb e¨_© nq Ges wØZxq wek¦h‡y ×i †kl ch©v‡q G‡m Av‡gwiKvi hy³iv‡óªi †bZ…‡Z¡ RvwZmsN cÖwZwôZ nq| wØZxq wek¦hy‡× GK c‡ÿ Rvg©vb, BUvjx, Ges Rvcvb †hvM`vb K‡i Ges Aci c‡ÿ Av‡gwiKv, ivwkqv, Bsj¨vÛ I d«vÝ †hvM †`q| GB mgqKv‡j BD‡iv‡ci evB‡i `y‡Uv civkw³i DÌvb nq Zviv n‡jv Rvcvb I hy³ivóª| 10
1945 mvj †_‡K 1991 mvj ch©šÍ VvÛv hy×Kvjxb mgq wn‡m‡e L¨vZ| wØZxq wek¦h‡y ×i ci ivwkqv civkw³ wn‡m‡e Avwef~©Z n‡j cy‡iv c„w_ex `y‡Uv fv‡M fvM n‡q hvq| GLv‡b D‡jøL‡hvM¨ †h 1917 mv‡j iæk weíe msNwUZ n‡j ivwkqvq mgvRZš¿ Kv‡qg nq Ges føvw`wgi †jwb‡bi †bZ…‡Z¡ ivwkqv GKUv kw³kvjx Ae¯’v‡b P‡j Av‡m| cieZx©‡Z †hv‡md ó¨vwj‡bi †bZ…‡Z¡ ivwkqv AZ¨šÍ kw³kvjx GKwU iv‡óª cwibZ nq Ges wØZxq wek¦hy‡× ¸iæZ¡c~Y© f~wgKv iv‡L| 1991 mv‡j ¯œvqyhy‡×i cZb n‡j ivwkqvi ÿgZv Le© nq Ges hy³iv‡óªi †bZ…‡Z¡ cy‡iv c„w_ex GK †giæ wfwËK c„w_ex‡Z cwibZ nq| 2008 mvj ch©šÍ GB Ae¯’v envj _v‡K| 2008 mv‡ji ci A_©‣bwZK g›`v †`Lv w`‡j hy³ivóª wcwQ‡q c‡o Ges ivwkqvi †bZ…‡Z¡ cy‡iv c„w_ex AveviI `yB †giæ‡Z fvM n‡q c‡o| 9/11 Gi NUbv msNwUZ n‡j Av‡gwiKv mš¿v‡mi weiæ‡× hy× †NvlYv K‡i| GLv‡b D‡jøL¨ †h 2003 mv‡j Biv‡Ki cÖwm‡W›U mvÏvg †nv‡mb‡K ÿgZvPz¨Z Ki‡Z Av‡gwiKvi †bZ…Z¡vaxb evwnbx BivK Avµgb Ki‡j ga¨cÖv‡P¨ msKU Qwo‡q c‡o| cieZx©‡Z UzBb UvIqvi Uª¨v‡RWx msNwUZ n‡j Av‡gwiKv Ges Zvi wgÎ evwnbx AvdMvwb¯Ívb Avµgb K‡i| GB hy× g~jZt Avj Kv‡q`vi weiæ‡× cwiPvwjZ nq| hw`I AvdMvwb¯Ív‡b ZLb Zv‡jevb‡`i ivRZ¡ PjwQj| wKš‘ Zviv Avj Kv‡q`vi †bZv Imvgv web jv‡`b‡K AvkÖq †`Iqvq Av‡gwiKv AvdMvwb¯’vb nvgjvi wmØvšÍ †bq| 11
Aw ¯’i mg‡qi Mí GKUv ARvbv ksKv mvivÿY Zvwo‡q †eov‡”Q| bv Rvwb KLb wK nq| Ni †_‡K †ei nIqvi mgq Av‡MI †`vqv c‡o †ei nZvg| AvqvZzj Kziwm Ges Ab¨vb¨ ‡`vqv c‡o ey‡Ki Dci wZb dzK| Zvici myenvbvjøvn& ej‡Z ej‡Z wmwo †_‡K wb‡P bvgv| Gi mv‡_ eZ©gv‡b hv hy³ n‡q‡Q Zv n‡jv `‡ivRvi Kv‡Q `uvwo‡q GB GKB †`vqv `iƒ` ¯¿x Ges `yB Kb¨v mn Pvi R‡b c‡o AZtci mevB mevi ey‡K dzK w`‡q evB‡i †ei nIqv| e¨vcviUv Av‡M ¯^vfvweK fv‡eB KiZvg| B`vwbs GUv Kivi mgq Mjv eyK ïwK‡q Av‡m| KviY Avi wKQz bq| GKevi evB‡i †ei n‡j N‡i wdie †Zv? nVvr K‡i GB fvebv †Kb †c‡q emj| Zvi KviY Kv‡iviB ARvbv bq| GUv A`„k¨ fxwZ Avi ksKvi g‡a¨ w`‡q hvw”Q Avgiv| gyL dz‡U wKQz ewj Avi bv ewj GUvB mZ¨| hw`I G ch©šÍ †Kv‡bv wKQzB gnvgvixi AvKvi avib K‡iwb| ZeyI kvwšÍi mg‡q mvgvb¨ AkvwšÍI A‡bK †ekx AvZsK m„wó K‡i| GKUv hy× Kvjxb cwiw¯’wZ‡Z A‡bK wKQzB NU‡e e‡j a‡i †bIqv nq| wKš‘ eZ©gv‡b †miKg †Kvb mgq GLbI Av‡mwb| ZeyI †Ljv R‡g D‡V‡Q| fxwZi †Ljv| hviv gv‡V †b‡g c‡o‡Q Zviv A`„k¨| mevB hvi hvi g‡Zv e‡j| Avm‡j Avgvi g‡b nq †jvK¸‡jv GLbI aiv †Quvqvi evB‡i| e¨vciUv‡K Lv‡Uv K‡i †`Lvi my‡hvM †bB| wKQz GKUv A`„k¨ Qvqvi g‡Zv AbymiY Ki‡Q Avgv‡`i| †mUv †h mvg‡bi w`‡K 12
AM Ömi n‡”Q weMZ w`‡bi NUbv cÖevn Zv ¯úó K‡i w`‡”Q| mvgvb¨ cUKvi we‡ùviY w`‡q ïiæ n‡qwQj| GLb ivZvivwZ †evgvq †cu․‡Q †M‡Q| NUbvi MwZ †h cvðv`gyLx bq Zv ¯úó| Avi †KD bv ej‡jI Avwg ejwQ| Avgiv my¯ú÷ AvZs‡Ki ga¨ w`‡q hvw”Q| Avm‡j †Kv_vq hvw”Q Avgiv| GKUvi ci GKUv NUbv NU‡Q| NUbvi myiZnvjI n‡”Q| wm×všÍI Avm‡Q| †mB wm×všÍ K‡ZvUv mwVK ZvI †evSv hv‡”Q bv| weªwUk DccÖavb gš¿x G‡Zvw`b ci ej‡Qb, BivK Avµgb mwVK wQ‡jv bv| GgbwK Avµgb cieZx© wm×všÍ¸‡jvI fzj wQ‡jv| Biv‡Ki Avf¨šÍixY mgm¨v GLb c„w_exe¨vcx gnvgvixi g‡Zv Qwo‡q c‡o‡Q| gvbyl¸‡jv w`‡b w`‡b `vbe n‡q D‡V‡Q| GB wKQzw`b ch©šÍ evsjv‡`‡k Gi mvgvb¨ AuvP gvÎ †j‡MwQj| GLb g‡b n‡”Q Av¸b Qwo‡q co‡Q| jÿY †gv‡UI fv‡jv †VK‡Q bv| B‡Zvg‡a¨ Avi hvB †nvK †jvK R‡bi my¯’¨ ¯^vfvweK wPšÍvi MwZaviv e¨vnZ Kivi KvRwU mv_K©fv‡eB n‡q †M‡Q|GKUv RvwZ‡K civwRZ Ki‡Z n‡j GUv n‡jv cÖ_g avc| Zvi fvebv‡K G‡jv‡g‡jv K‡i †`Iqv| Avgiv m¤¢eZt cÖ_g avcwU‡Z cv †i‡LwQ| Gfv‡eB nqZ Dc‡i wb‡q hvIqv n‡e| Zvici k~b¨ †_‡K Quz‡o †djv n‡e| GgbUvB g‡b n‡”Q| AvaywbK c„w_exi cÖ_g wecøe msNwUZ n‡qwQj d«v‡Ý| divmx weíe bv‡gB hvi cwiwPZ| †mB wecø‡ei iv¯Ív a‡i m¤úyY© wfbœ Kvq`vq iæk wecøe msNwUZ n‡qwQj| †cÖÿvcU wfbœ n‡jI D‡Ï‡k¨ GKB wQ‡jv| cwieZ©b| cwieZ©b wVKB n‡qwQ‡jv| 13
wK š‘ `yt‡Li welq †mB cwieZ©b mevi Rb¨ g½j e‡q Av‡bwb| Avwd«Kvi weivU msL¨K gyw³cÖvß ivóª AvRI AwffveKnxb n‡q `ywf©‡ÿi hvZvK‡j wcó n‡”Q| ¯^vaxbZv Zv‡`i R‡b¨ civaxbZvi †P‡qI RNb¨ Av_© mvgvwRK Ae¯’vi m„wó K‡i‡Q| Zviv GK AšÍnxb AwbwðZ MšÍ‡e¨ nvZ‡o †eov‡”Q| mwZ¨B `ytLRbK| cwieZ©b me mgq g½jRbK bq| AwffveKnxb mgq Kj¨vYKi bq| ZvB e‡j ¯^vaxbZv‡K Lv‡Uv K‡i †`Lvi †Kvb my‡hvM †bB| g~jZt A_©‣bwZK ¯^vaxbZvB g~j¨evb| evsjv‡`‡ki Rb¥ wek¦ ivRbxwZ‡Z wKQzUv n‡jI bvov w`‡qwQj| cÖfvekvjx bv n‡jI RvwZ ivóª wn‡m‡e cvwK¯Ívb we‡k¦i `iev‡i MiæZ¡c~Y© wQ‡jv| Zvi nvZ †_‡K †ewi‡q Avmv wek¦ ivRbxwZ‡K wKQzUv n‡jI bvov w`‡qwQ‡jv| cieZx©‡Z RvZxq I AvšÍR©vwZK NUbv cÖevn AviI RwUj AvKvi avib K‡i| B‡Zvg‡a¨ `wÿY I `wÿY c~e© Gwkqvq Af~Zc~e© A_©‣bwZK Dbœqb mvwaZ n‡q †M‡Q| mevi bRi †mw`‡KB wQ‡jv| wKš‘ me wKQz GKmgq w_Zz n‡q Av‡m| gvbyl Avevi bóvjwRqvq wd‡i Av‡m| ¯^vaxbZvi cqZvwjøk eQi ci evsjv‡`k cÖm½ Kv‡iv Kv‡iv Kv‡Q bóvjwRqv n‡q wd‡i Avm‡Q| †mB mv‡_ mv‡_ hy³ n‡q‡Q me©‡kl •ewk¦K cwiw¯’wZ| mewKQz wgwj‡q evsjv‡`k GLb eZ©gv‡bi ‡Mg| AvdMvwb¯’vb, BivK, wjweqv, wmwiqvi ci evsjv‡`k| GKUv †Kvb cÖm½ me mgq nv‡Z _vKv PvB| •ewk¦K ivRbxwZi PvKv eywS Gfv‡eB †Nv‡i| me©‡kl nvgjvi aib †`‡L g‡b n‡”Q evsjv‡`k miKvi ev jÿ¨e¯’z Gi Uv‡M©U bq| Zvn‡j mivmwi miKvi‡KB Avµgb 14
Kiv n ‡Zv| Avµg‡bi ai‡b •ewk¦K ivRbxwZi Qvc| Z‡e †evSv hv‡”Q bv| nqZ `„wó AvKl©‡bi cvkvcvwk `„wó‡K Ab¨w`‡K †Nviv‡bvi †PóvI _vK‡Z cv‡i| g~j jÿ¨gvÎvq nq‡Zv ax‡i ax‡i AvMv‡bv n‡e| †kvjvwKqv nvgjvq wKš‘ ZviB Bw½Z| ¯^vaxbZv cieZx© mg‡qi evsjv‡`k A‡bK cwiw¯’wZi ga¨ w`‡q AwZµg K‡i‡Q| wKš‘y GmeB wQ‡jv m`¨ ¯^vaxb nIqv †`kwU‡Z RvZxq Ges AvšÍR©vwZK m¤úª`v‡qi cvIqv bv cvIqvi Zvobv †_‡K| †mB †LjvI euv‡K euv‡K †gvo wb‡q‡Q| Zv‡Z ïay cÿ wecÿ iƒ‡c AskMÖnb K‡i‡Q| wKš‘ eZ©gv‡b hv n‡”Q Zv‡Z cÿ wecÿ †evSv †M‡jI Zv‡`i wPwýZ Kiv hv‡”Q bv| Kviv AvµgbKvix Zv †hgb A¯úó Kviv †h AvµvšÍ n‡e ZvI wbwðZ K‡i ejv hv‡”Q bv| wbixn c_Pvix M„neay GgbwK Miæ, QvMjI GB nvgjv †_‡K wbivc` bq| iv¯Ív w`‡q nuvU‡Z nuvU‡Z Avcwb wb‡R‡K nVvr GKUv hy×‡ÿ‡Îi †fZ‡i Avwe¯‥vi Ki‡Z cv‡ib| AZx‡Zi mv‡_ Avgv‡`i eZ©gvb Ae¯’vi cv_©K¨ cwijwÿZ n‡”Q| Av‡M Avgv‡`i kix‡ii A½ cÖZ¨½¸‡jv `ye©j n‡jI mewgwj‡q cy‡iv kixiUv kw³kvjx wQ‡jv| eZ©gv‡b A½ cÖZ¨½¸‡jv kw³kvjx n‡jI cy‡iv kixiUv `ye©j n‡q c‡o‡Q| me‡P‡q eo K_v Avgiv `„k¨gvb DbœwZ jvf Ki‡jI bxwZ‣bwZKZvi w`K w`‡q †gvUvgywU Zjvbx‡Z G‡m †cu․‡QwQ| evsjv‡`‡k ivóªxq mš¿vm bZzb wKQz bq| Avi GB ivóªxq mš¿vmB nq‡Zv GB Aw¯’i mg‡qi Rb¥ w`‡q‡Q hv‡K eyS‡Z n‡j wKQzUv c_ Ny‡i Avm‡Z n‡e| 15
evsjv , evOvjx Ges evsjv‡`kx 1947 mv‡ji 14B AvM÷ cvwK¯Ívb iv‡óªi R‡b¥i ci AvcvZt`„‡ó Dcgnv‡`‡k GKUv ivR‣bwZK mgvavb n‡jI †mUv wQ‡jv †cvov Nv‡q jsKv jvMv‡bvi gZB GKUv mgvavb| GKw`‡K we`vqx Bs‡iR Ab¨w`‡K Amš‘ó fviZ Ges me©‡kl civwRZ gymjgvb - GiKg GKUv weaŸ¯Í Dcgnv‡`k‡K †cQ‡b †d‡j †i‡L GKUv AwbwðZ AvMvgxi c‡_ hvÎv K‡iwQj| fviZ †h‡nZz †K›`ª we›`y‡Z wQ‡jv †m ZeyI wKQzUv n‡jI ¸wQ‡q wb‡Z †c‡iwQj| w`jøx Av‡MB ivRavbx wn‡m‡e mvRv‡bv wQ‡jv| †K›`ªxq e¨vsKI Zv‡`i Aax‡bB wQ‡jv| A_© m¤ú` hv wKQz wQ‡jv Zv w`‡q Zviv Zv‡`i fwel¨r ‡MuvQv‡Z ïiæ Ki‡jv| cvwK¯Ív‡bi nv‡Z UvKv Qvcv‡bvi KvMR †Kbvi cqmvI wQ‡jv bv| Zviv k~Y¨ wn‡me wb‡q ïiæ Ki‡jv| Dcgnv‡`‡ki cÖ_g e¨_©Zv GLvb †_‡KB ïiæ| fvi‡Zi †K›`ªxq e¨vs‡Ki Kv‡Q cvwK¯Ív‡bi cvIbv AvRI e‡Kqv n‡q Av‡Q| hy× ZLbB ïiæ nIqvi K_v| wKš‘ nqwb| KviY Avi wKQz bq| †giæ`Û fv½v cvwK¯Ívb hy× Kivi g‡Zv kw³ †Kv_vq cv‡e| Zvi †h wb‡Ri Ni mvgjv‡bvB KwVb| mg¯Í †µva, mšÍvc, ivM †ÿvf, `ytL †g‡b wb‡q K¨vÝvi AvµvšÍ g„Zz¨c_hvÎx GKRb wRbœvB cvwK¯Ív‡bi c_ Pjv ïiæ Kiv‡jb| AwbwðZ MšÍe¨| Awb‡Y©q fwel¨r| m¤^‡ji g‡a¨ ïay cvÄvex wgwjUvix AvwfRvZ¨| fvi‡Zi weivU HwZ‡n¨i Kv‡Q Zv AwZ mvgvb¨B †V‡K| ZeyI mgv‡b mgv‡b cvjøv †`Iqvi †Póv| 16
1946 mv ‡ji 16B AvMó wW‡i± G¨vKkb †W - †Z gymjgvbiv fviZxq‡`i g‡b †h fq aiv‡Z †c‡iwQj Zvi mydj gymjgvbiv AvRI †fvM Ki‡Q| kw³i fvimv‡g¨ `viæb cv_©K¨ _vKv m‡Ë¡I `y‡Uv ivóª mgv‡b mgv‡b cvjøv w`‡q Pj‡Q| KviY Avi wKQz bq| gymjgvbiv kvwšÍwcÖq RvwZ| Z‡e KLbI KLbI fxwZI KvR †`q| fviZ fv‡Mi †ÿ‡ÎI GUv fv‡jv dj w`‡qwQ‡jv| GKw`‡bi Qov‡bv fxwZ‡Z wn›`yiv fviZ †f‡½ fviZ I cvwK¯Ívb `y‡Uv ivóª Rb¥ w`‡Z ivRx n‡q †Mj| MvÜx A‡bK Av‡MB Acvs‡³q n‡q wM‡qwQ‡jb| Ks‡MÖm Avi gymwjg jx‡Mi Kuv`v †QvovQzwoi ivRbxwZ‡Z Zvi †h †Zgb ‡Kvb cÖ‡qvRb wQ‡jv bv Zv mevB eyS‡Z cviwQ‡jv| wZwbI ev e‡m e‡m wK Ki‡eb| †`k fvM Gi Zzgj y mv¤úª`vwqK `v½vi i³viw³ Kv‡Ûi g‡a¨ ivR‣bwZK †Ljv †Lj‡Z nvj †Q‡o w`‡q Ae‡k‡l `v½v wbim‡b †j‡M co‡jb| †b‡niæiI GKB Ae¯’v| hw`I wZwbB g~‡j wQ‡jb ZeyI `v½vi e¨vcKZv wbR¯^ GKUv AvKvi avib K‡iwQ‡j| ivRbxwZ †_‡K †ewi‡q G‡m GKUv RvwZ, ag© Avi ivRbxwZi we‡Ø‡li Ave‡Z© Rwo‡q c‡owQ‡j| jvj †Kjøvi Kv‡Q †b‡niæ GKUv jvwV nv‡Z wb‡q `v½vKvix‡`i wbimb Kivi †Póv K‡iwQ‡jb| wKš‘y Zv‡Z wK n‡e| GKRb †b‡niæi c‡ÿ wK Avi mviv fvi‡Zi `v½v wbimb m¤¢e? †b‡niæ hLb w`jøx‡Z cvÄv‡e ZLb wkL‡`i †jvnvi nvZzox Avi i‡Wi AvNv‡Z gymjgvb DØv¯‘‡`i gv_vi Lywj dUdU K‡i dvU‡Q| Avi MvÜxwR ZLb KjKvZvq `v½v wbim‡b e¨_© †Póv K‡i hv‡”Qb| Dcgnv‡`‡ki 190 eQ‡ii Bs‡iR kvmbvg‡j ivRbxwZi a~gvwqZ AÜKvi Av‡MœqwMwii jvfvi g‡Zv M‡j ‡ei n‡Z jvM‡jv| gvbyl †h Zvi 17
†fZ‡i †fZ‡i K‡ZvUv Agvbyl Zv ax‡i ax‡i cÖKvwkZ n‡Z jvM‡jv| 1927 mv‡j mvBgb Kwgkb KZ…©K fviZxq‡`i msweavb cÖbq‡bi my‡hvM `v‡bi gva¨‡gB cÖ_g Dcgnv‡`‡ki ivRbxwZ‡Z myevZvm eB‡Z ïiæ K‡i| wKš‘ ‡gvwZjvj ‡b‡niæi g‡Zv Ruv`‡ij ivRbxwZwe`I nvi gv‡bb fviZxq‡`i wb‡R‡`i R‡b¨ GKUv msweavb •Zwi Ki‡Z| Avi hvq †Kv_vq| fviZxqiv Bs‡iR‡`i Kv‡Q K‡qK `dv Zz”Q Zvw”Q‡j¨i wkKvi n‡jv| Ae‡k‡l 1928 mv‡j mvBgb Kwgk‡bi mycvwi‡ki wfwË‡Z 1935 mv‡ji fviZ kvmb AvBb cÖYxZ n‡qwQ‡jv| Aek¨ Gi g‡a¨ wRbœvni HwZnvwmK †P․Ï `dvi GKUv weivU f~wgKv wQ‡jv| Dcgnv‡`‡ki GKgvÎ wPKb gv_vi ivRbxwZwe` wRbœvB ‡c‡iwQ‡jb wKQzUv n‡jI KvM‡R Kj‡g Ae`vb ivL‡Z| evKx me K Aÿi †Mvgvsm| K_vi dyjSzwi| e³„Zv Avi †gavi ivRbxwZ GK wRwbm bq| wRbœvn VvÛv gv_vi †jvK wQ‡jb| mgm¨v eyS‡Z cvi‡Zb| mwVK wRwbmUv wPb‡Z cvi‡Zb| GKRb †P․Km AvBbRxwe wn‡m‡e Zvi L¨vwZ wQ‡jv| Zv‡K hLb weªwUk ivRvi Kv‡Q cwiPq Kwi‡q †`Iqv nq ZLb ejv n‡qwQ‡jv G wiKM&bvBRW g¨vb d«g G wiKM&bvBRW cwRkb| mwZ¨B wZwb ZvB wQ‡jb| wRbœvni †P․Ï `dv 1935 mv‡ji fviZ kvm‡bi wfwËg~j iPbv K‡iwQj| GiB wfwË‡Z 1947 mv‡ji †`k wefv‡Mi `wjj iwPZ nq| GgbwK cvwK¯Ívb R‡b¥i ci AbywôZ cÖv‡`wkK wbe©vPb¸‡jv †hgb cvÄve, DËi cwðg mxgvšÍ cÖ‡`k GgbwK evOjvi 1954 mv‡ji wbe©vPbI 1935 mv‡ji fviZ kvmb AvB‡bi wfwË‡Z AbywôZ n‡qwQj| GKRb gvbyl GKv 18
GKUv c „_K c„w_ex iPbv K‡iwQ‡jb| wRbœvn Zvi mgq‡K AwZµg K‡i KvjRqx n‡Z †c‡iwQ‡jb| †`k fvM n‡jv RNb¨ GKUv cwiw¯’wZi ga¨ w`‡q| Pviw`‡K GKUv nvnvKvi Avi nvnvKvi| evsjv‡`‡k †hgb A‡bK gymjgvb Zvi Avmj wVKvbv †Q‡o P‡j G‡jv †Zgwb A‡bK wn›`yy wf‡U gvwU †d‡j Icv‡i cvwo Rgv‡jv| mv¤úª`vwqKZv‡K GKcv‡k †V‡j †i‡L Avgiv mevi R‡b¨ GKUv my›`i ivóª evbv‡Z cvijvg bv| wK fviZ wK cvwK¯Ívb Df‡qiB GKB nvjvZ| ivóª ej‡Z hv eySvq G¸‡jv Zvi av‡i Kv‡Q w`‡qI †M‡jv bv| GB Ae¯’vUv AviI wec¾bK| fviZ‡K hw`I c„w_exi me©e…nZ MYZvwš¿K ivóª ewj bv †Kb Zvi †fZi GLbI Mvo Mnxb AÜKvi| agx©q †Muvovgxi †eovRv‡j Ave× GKUv K~cgÛzK wPšÍvi AwaKvix ivóª †Kgb K‡i AvÂwjK civkw³ n‡e| AvšÍR©vwZK kw³‡Z cwibZ nIqv †Zv `~‡ii K_v GB AR©b Ki‡Z n‡j _v‡K A‡bK gvbexq ¸bvejx AR©b Ki‡Z n‡e| Ks‡MÖm wKsev KwgDwb÷iv mevB GB Ae¯’v †_‡K A‡bK `~‡i| †fv‡Ui ivRbxwZ Avi Ae¯’v cwieZ©‡bi ivRbxwZ GK bq| 1947 mv‡ji ci cvwK¯Ívb ivóªwU me‡P‡q eo wech©‡qi g‡a¨ c‡owQj| covUvB ¯^vfvweK| w`jøxi †K›`ªxq e¨vsK †`kfv‡Mi ÿwZc~iY eve` GKUv KvbvKwoI †`qwb| me‡P‡q eo K_v gvbwPÎwU †K‡U Ggb evbv‡bv n‡qwQ‡jv †h Zvi Dci cvwK¯Ívb K_vUv †jLvB KwVb wQ‡jv| AwePvi Avi Kv‡K e‡j| GiKg w`‡b `ycy‡i cyKzi Pzwi Lye KgB †`Lv hvq| Aek¨ we‡Øl AvRI hvqwb| nq‡Zv †Kvbw`b hv‡eI bv| N„Yvi MvQ GKevi †ivwcZ 19
n ‡j Zv †Kej WvjcvjvB Qovq| evsjv‡`k Aek¨ GKcv‡k c‡o wM‡qwQj| wKQzUv ¸iæZ¡nxb| evOvjxi ZLbI †Zgb †Kvb cwiwPZ n‡q I‡Vwb| mevB GUv‡K fvi‡Zi Ask wn‡m‡e RvbZ| †kL gywRe‡Zv ZLb e½eÜz wQ‡jb bv| ‡`kfv‡Mi ci †`kMV‡bi cvjv| fviZ Zvi weivU Rb‡Mvôxi fvi wb‡jI RbmsL¨vi Nb‡Z¡i wePv‡i †m Pvi ¸b myweavRbK Ae¯’v‡b wQ‡jv| wKQzUv n‡jI ¯^w¯Íi e¨vcvi| cvwK¯Ív‡bi Ae¯’v G‡Kev‡i bv‡Rnvj| Zx‡i G‡m Zix †Wvevi Ae¯’v| wRbœvn nvj ai‡jb Lvwj nv‡Z| wjqvKZ Avjx Zv‡K mg_b© †RvMv‡jb| †gvUvgywU g›` n‡jv bv| Kvk¥xiUv cy‡ivUv `Lj K‡i wb‡Z cvi‡j fv‡jv n‡Zv| gymjgvb‡`i RvqMvi †h mgm¨v| GKUz gv_v †MuvRvi VvB AšÍZt n‡Zv| †mLv‡bI fviZ eva mvaj| Zvi AviI PvB| †bcvj, f~Uvb, wmwKg‡K‡Zv gvÎ GKUv K_vq MÖvm K‡i wb‡jv| bv‡g gvÎ ivóª| Kv‡Ri bv‡g wKQzB bv| Xvj †bB Z‡jvqvi †bB wbwaivg m`©vi| cvwK¯Ívb ¯^fvweK fv‡eB fviZ‡K †gvKv‡ejvi R‡b¨ wb‡R‡K •Zwi Ki‡Z D‡V c‡o jvMj| G‡Mvw”QjI| mgm¨v n‡jv cvwK¯Ív‡bi weivU Rb†Mvôx wb‡q hviv Zv‡`i w`‡K ZvwK‡q Av‡Q| cwðg cvwK¯Ív‡bi c‡ÿ wn›`yy ivóª fviZ‡K Avµgb Kiv KwVb| djvdj wKQzUv A_©‣bwZK welq| ag©‡K cuywR K‡i cye© cvwK¯Ívb‡K fvB fvB e‡j Zviv wKQzUv n‡jI gv_v Zz‡j `uvovevi †Póv Ki‡jv| msL¨vMwió ev½vjx GUv gvb‡e ‡Kb| Aek¨ ZZw`‡b gymjxg jxM, cvwK¯Ívb Av‡›`vjb, mv¤úª`vwqK `v½v Gm‡ei ‡gvn †K‡U †M‡Q| evOvjx ZLb Zvi wb‡Ri R¡vjvqB 20
Aw ¯’i| fvZ, Kvco, jeb, Wvj, PvjB RyU‡Q bv| Bmjvg, HK¨, wn›`yy we‡Øl, gymjgvb‡`i c„_K ivóª Gme Zvi gv_v †_‡K ivZvivwZ †ewii‡q †M‡jv| hvIqvUvB ¯^vfvewK| cvwK¯Ívb ivóª R‡b¥i †h g~j cÖwµqv Zv‡Z evsjv‡`‡ki †Kvb ivRbxwZwe`B mwµq wQ‡jb bv| QvM‡ji Z…Zxq ev”Pv hv‡K e‡j| GKUz AvaUz gv‡qi Ijv‡bi evU cvq| Avgv‡`i Ae¯’v †miKg| cÖ_g AvNvZ Avmj fvlvi cÖ‡kœ| evsjv fvlvi gh©v`v wK n‡e| DÏ©y‡K ivóª fvlv Kiv n‡jv| evsjv ev` c‡o †M‡jv| A‡bK Av‡›`vjb msMÖv‡gi ci Ae‡k‡l 21 †deªæqvix i‡³i wewbg‡q †kl‡gl 1955 mv‡j G‡m evsjv‡K D`~©i cvkvcvwk Ab¨Zg ivóªfvlv e‡j ¯^xKvi K‡i †bIqv n‡jv| ev½vjx RvZxqZvev‡`i avibv †kL gywR‡ei| wZwb wngvjq cvnv‡oi g‡Zv †jvK wQ‡jb| gnvmvM‡ii g‡Zv wQ‡jv Zvi KwjRv| wZwb mgMÖ ev½vjx‡K wb‡qB †f‡ewQ‡jb| djkÖæwZ‡Z ev½vjx RvZxqZvev`| wKš‘ GKUv †`k ZLb GKUv ‡f․‡MvwjK mxgv‡iLvi g‡a¨ AvUKv c‡o hvq ZLb Zvi Avi D`viZv _v‡K bv| Zv‡K ¯^v_©ci n‡Z nq| mxgvbvi wfZ‡ii †jvK¸‡jvi Rb¨| me‡P‡q eo K_v GUv n‡jv Awf‡hvRb| †kL gywRe cÖ‡Z¨KUv †ÿ‡Î Awf‡hvR‡b e¨_© n‡qwQ‡jb| ¯^vaxbZv c~e©eZx© gnvb †bZv ¯^vaxbZvi cieZ©x Kv‡jI †mB GKB gvnv‡Z¥¨ †`k Pvjv‡Z †P‡qwQ‡j| jv‡fi jvf wKQzB nqwb| Amy¯’ evOvjx AviI Amy¯’ n‡jv| †bZv‡KB †g‡i emj| ZvI Avevi ¯^cwiev‡iB| ivRbxwZi jvMvgUvB nvZQvov n‡q wM‡q coj Z¯‥‡ii nv‡Z| Ae¯’v fqven n‡jv| KwZcq †jvfx, ¯^v_©ci 21
Avi nxbgb ¨ gvbyl me©Î Avmb †M‡o emj| †kL gywR‡ei gyL w`‡qB evsjv‡`kx RvZxqZvev` D”PvwiZ nIqvi K_v wQ‡jv| ¯^vaxbZv AR©‡bi c‡i GUvB wQ‡jv ev¯ÍeZv| GKUv †g‡q we‡hi Av‡M hv _v‡K we‡qi ci Zv _v‡K bv| Zv‡K mevB Ab¨ cwiP‡q Rv‡b| ev½vjxi cwiPq e`‡j wQ‡jv| Avgiv mZ¨‡K A¯^xKvi Kijvg| GiKg A‡bK avgvPvcv Ges wewfbœ m¤úª`vq‡K mš‘ó Kivi R‡b¨ D×U me a¨vb avibvi Avwe¯‥vi Avgv‡`i †`‡k bZzb wKQz bq| Bs‡iR Avg‡jI cwiw¯’wZ Abyhvqx bxwZ cÖbqb Kiv n‡q‡Q| ivóªweÁv‡bi ‡Kvb dg©©j ~ vq Gme c‡o wKbv GKgvÎ AvjøvnB fv‡jv Rv‡bb| Avgiv †m¸‡jvB MjvatKiY K‡iwQ‡jvg| KviY Dcvq wQ‡jv bv| cvwK¯Ívb Avg‡jI ZvB N‡UwQj| 1947 mv‡j ¯^vaxb nIqv †`kwU†Z 1955 mv‡j msweavb ‡c‡qwQ‡jv| ZvI Avevi AvBqye Lv‡bi ey‡Ui bx‡P Pvcv coj| mewKQz †cQ‡b †d‡j AšÍZt GZUzKz ej‡Z n‡e BqvwnqvB Avgv‡`i R‡b¨ wKQzUv n‡jI my‡hvM •Zwi K‡iwQ‡jb| 1970 mv‡ji wbe©vPb w`‡q wZwb †Zv evsjv‡`k‡K ¯^vaxbZvi g~j g‡Â DwV‡q w`‡jb| wKš‘ hy‡×i ga¨ w`‡q wZwb wK ai‡bi mgvavb Luy‡RwQ‡jb Zv GK gvÎ wZwbB Rv‡bb| `gb wK msL¨vMwiôZv †P‡c ivL‡Z cv‡i| gvÎ †Zv bq gvm| Ae‡k‡l wmsn kve‡Ki Rb¥ n‡jv| evsjv‡`k AvR ev¯ÍeZv| wKš‘ †mB GKB fz‡ji w`‡K AvgivI hvÎv ïiæ Kijvg| msweav‡bi g~jbxwZ‡Z wjLjvg MYZvwš¿K A‡_© mgvRZš¿| †QvU eo‡`i gy‡L jwjc‡ci bv‡g Pzlwb awi‡q 22
†`Iqv| MYZš¿ Avi mgvRZš¿ wK GK n‡jv| G `y‡Uvi wg‡kjB ev nq †Kgb K‡i| Avgvi gv_vq Av‡m bv| †KD †Kvb cÖkœI K‡i bv| mevB fvb K‡i| fv‡b fv‡b 45 eQi †K‡U †M‡Q| AvRI ivRbxwZi A‡bK wKQz AgxgvswmZ| K‡e †h gxgvsmv n‡e †KD Rv‡b bv| evsjv‡`‡ki gvby‡li GKUv wb`viæb •ewkó¨ bM` bM` dj jvf| ¯^vaxbZvi ci 45 eQi †K‡U †M‡Q| Avgiv AvRI GKUv mywbw`©ó jÿ¨ wb‡q we‡k¦i `iev‡i `uvov‡Z cvwiwb| Dbœq‡bi †Niv‡Uvc, cÖPvi AcÖPv‡ii kZiÄ, we‡`‡ki gvwU‡Z wbe©vwmZ †_‡K wek¦evmxi g‡bv‡hvM Ges `qvi AvKl©Y| `viæb †nuqvwj| Zvi Dc‡i †bZv‡`i wkÿv-`xÿvi eni †`L‡j gv_v Ny‡i hvq| wK ej‡Z wK ej‡e wb‡RI Rv‡b bv| cÖvqktB †edvm K_v †ewi‡q hv‡”Q| ivRbxwZi †Kvb ¯‥zj GLv‡b †bB| UvKv Av‡Q| mš¿vmx jvjb cvjb Ki‡Qb| †bZv n‡Z Avi †`ix wK| weMZ RxebUv Avjy cU‡ji e¨vevmvq fv‡jvB ‡K‡U‡Q| Gevi mivmwi cv‡R‡iv P‡i msm‡`| †eqv`wei GKUv mxgv cwimxgv Av‡Q| K‡l GKUv _vài jvM‡bv DwPZ| jÕ‡gKvi nIqv G‡ZvUv mnR| GUv wK evc `v`vi m¤úwË| GB evovevwoi R‡b¨ AvR GB cwibwZ| 1954 mv‡ji wbe©vP‡b Avgv‡`i weRq G‡mwQj ¯^vqZ¡kvm‡bi cÖ‡kœ| wbe©vP‡b wecyj weRq n‡jI HUzKzB Kcv‡j mB‡jv bv| ¯^vaxbZvi `vex DwV DwV K‡iB Pvcv c‡i hvw”Qj| gywRe AvIqvgx jx‡Mi nvj ai‡jb| Zv‡K †X‡j mvRv‡jb| A‡b‡KB e‡jb gywRe Av‡eMx †bZv| e³„Zvq gvbyl‡K Nv‡qj K‡i‡Qb| 23
mvsMwVK `ÿZv †bB| GKv GKUv gvbyl mviv‡`‡k AvIqvgx jxM‡K ‡X‡j mvRv‡jb| †`kUv‡K ¯^vaxbZvi †hvM¨ K‡i Zzj‡jb| cy‡iv RxebUv ivRbxwZi R‡b¨ DRvo K‡i w`‡jb| Avi †mB gvbylUvB Avgv‡`i Kv‡Q A‡hvM¨ n‡q †Mj| 1972 †_‡K 1975 mvj ch©šÍ Avgiv wK K‡iwQjvg mevB Zv fv‡jv K‡iB Rvwb| gywRe‡K B”QvK…Zfv‡e AKvh©Ki Kiv n‡qwQj| ¯^vaxbZvi ci ev½vjx mvevjK n‡qwQj| nVvr mvevjK nIqv gvby‡li eyw× KLbI KLbI AvZ¥NvZx nq| ev½vjxiI ZvB n‡qwQj| GK_v mZ¨ cvwK¯Ívbxiv eiveiB `gb Pvwj‡qwQj| wKš‘y GUvI †Zv mZ¨ †mB 23 eQ‡i AvgivI wK fv‡jv †Kvb ivR‣bwZK cÖwZØwÜZv Dcnvi w`‡Z †c‡iwQjvg| gywRe GKw`‡K †Zv fvmvbx Ab¨w`‡K| †k‡i evsjv GKw`‡K †Zv †mvnivIqvw`© GKw`‡K| cvwK¯ÍvbxiI †mB my‡hvMUvB wb‡jv| AvBqye Lvb •gvwjK MYZš¿ Avwe®‥vi Ki‡jb| fveLvbv Ggb †hb Aveªvnvg wjsK‡bi †Kvb cÖ‡qvRb wQ‡jv bv| GB me †nÛ †gW gZev` ‡Kvb ivR‣bwZK g~j aviv n‡Z cv‡i bv| wek¦ ivRbxwZ ivZvivwZ AvR‡Ki GB Ae¯’vq G‡m †cu․‡Qwb| Gi Rb¨ kZvãxi ci kZvãx cwÛ‡Ziv mvabv K‡i‡Qb| Zv‡K w¯’wZkxj Kivi Rb¨ ARmª ¸bx e¨w³ Zv‡`i †gav Avi gbbkxjZv w`‡q A_©bxwZ `k©b, ivóªweÁvb Gme welq‡K wZ‡jwZ‡j mg„× K‡i‡Qb| Avi ev½vjx Gm‡ei `k©b †ei K‡i‡Q| fvjMvi evsjv Qwei †P‡q GUv †gv‡UB Kg nvm¨Ki bq| we`» cwÛ‡Ziv mvRN‡ii †Kvbvq VvB wb‡q‡Q| RvwZi mvg‡b AÜKvi| 24
1962 mv ‡j wkÿv Av‡›`vjb n‡jv| RvwZi Av‡Z Nv jvMvi g‡Zv Avi wK| cÖwZev` n‡jv| `viæb cÖwZev`| ¯^vaxbZvi Av‡›`vj‡bi R‡b¨ cÖ¯‘wZ ejv hvq Avi wK? kwid Kwgkb‡K hvPvB Ki‡Z nvgy`yi ingvb wkÿv Kwgkb MVb Kiv n‡jv| wPÎ †mB GKB| Av‡›`vjb Ae¨vnZ _vK‡jv| eivei †hgb nq| K‡jvwb¸‡jv‡Z GKUv wKQz‡K Avi GKUv wKQz w`‡q Pvcv †`Iqv nq| †g․wjK MYZš¿ Dcnvi †`Iqv n‡jv| 1965 mv‡j G‡jv wbe©vPb| RbMY GUv IUv wb‡q Rwo‡q coj| Avmj welq¸‡jv avgvPvcv c‡o †Mj| GB ivRbxwZ AvRI Ae¨vnZ| GKUv NUbv‡K Avi GKUv NUbv w`‡q avgvPvcv †`Iqv n‡”Q| weªwUkiv Zv‡`i cvjv©‡g›U wb‡q Mwe©Z| Avgiv Avgv‡`i cvjv©‡g›U wb‡q jw¾Z| nvq‡i evsjv‡`k| D™¢U lv‡oi wc‡V P‡j‡Q ¯^‡`k| 1968 mv‡j G‡m AvMoZjv lohš¿ gvgjv †`Iqv n‡jv| ¯^vaxbZv hvI GKUz wcwQ‡q †h‡Zv ZvI AviI Z¡ivwš^Z n‡jv| cvwK¯Ívbxiv K‡jvbx †c‡qwQj| wKš‘y Zv‡K wKfv‡e kvmb Ki‡Z n‡e Zv Rvb‡Zv bv| GKUvi ci GKUv gv_v †gvUv kvmK cy‡ iv cwiw¯’wZ‡K †Nvjv‡U K‡iwQj| gywRe †kl ch©šÍ ALÛ cvwK¯Ívb †P‡qwQ‡jb| PvIqvUvB ¯^vfvweK| ALÛ fviZ n‡j Av‡iv fv‡jv n‡Zv| nqwb| cvwK¯Ívb n‡jv| GLb Pj‡Q †fZ‡i †fZ‡i fvsM‡bi †Ljv| †KD †`‡k †KD we†`‡k| mevB mevi avÜvq e¨¯Í| †`‡ki Ae¯’v ev‡ivUv| gvSLvb w`‡q Z…Zxq †KD G‡m c‡o‡Q| Zv‡`i Ae¯’vi Rvbvb w`‡q‡Q| gRvi e¨cvi Giv Kviv †KD Rv‡b bv| G‡`i D‡Ïk¨ wK ZvI †KD Rv‡b bv| Av‡Mi 25
w `‡b Rvbv `yB c‡ÿi g‡a¨ hy× n‡Zv| GLb cÖwZcÿ ARvbv| Zv‡`i D‡Ïk¨I ARvbv| ‡KD e‡j Bmjvg Kv‡qg Kivi R‡b¨| †KD e‡j Av‡gwiKvi •Zwi| †KD e‡j †gvmv‡`i KvR| Gi KvibI Av‡Q| AvBGm †Zv Av‡QB| `vqxUv †K| mevB AÜKv‡i| †fZ‡i †fZ‡i ïay AvZsK| GB eywS wKQz GKUv NUj| Av‡gwiKvi g‡Zv evsjv‡`‡k me‡jv‡Ki nv‡ZI nqZ GKmgq A¯¿ w`‡q w`‡Z n‡e| wKš‘ ev½vjxi †h Ae¯’v| kÎæ `gb bv K‡i †mB A¯¿ w`‡q Zviv wb‡RivB wb‡R‡`i LZg K‡i w`‡q e‡m _vK‡e| ¯^fv‡e Lye GKUv fv‡jv bv| BwZnv‡m hv wKQz †jLv Zv‡Z Av‡jvi †P‡q AÜKvi †ekx| wn‡ivi †P‡q wek¦vm NvZKB †ewk| fv‡jv K_vi †P‡q MvjvMvwj †ewk| 1972 †_‡K 1975 mgq KvjUvq `viæb UzB÷ wQ‡jv| Avgiv †mUv‡K ai‡Z cvwiwb| c_ fzj Kwi| cieZx©‡Z cÖwZeÜx wkïi Rb¥ nq| †mB aviv Ae¨vnZ AvRI| cwÛ‡Ziv N‡ii †Kv‡b AvkÖq †bq| ‡ewki fvM mgqUvB †K‡U hvq †NvjvR‡j gvQ wkKvi Ki‡Z Ki‡Z| djvdj †Zgb wKQz bv| K_vi eywj AvDwo‡q mvšÍb¦ v †LuvRv| msweav‡b wKQz †jvK †`Lv‡bv cwiwPZ K_v| ivóª PjwQj Zvi wbR¯^ wbq‡g| ‡Kvb ivóÖ weÁv‡bi dg©~jvq bq| cÖ‡Z¨K wb‡ev©‡ai wbR¯^ gZvgZ Abyhvqx bv P‡j cwÛZ‡`i †W‡K K_v ejv DwPZ wQ‡jv| MšÍe¨ wba©viY Kiv DwPZ wQ‡jv| GB KvRwU AvR 45 eQi ciI n‡”Q bv| K‡e ‡h n‡e ZvI Rvbv †bB| AÜKv‡i nvZ‡o †eov‡bvi gZ Kvq`v| wKQz f~wg wKQz bM` UvKv KvR GmeB Avgv‡`i ivRbxwZi cÖavb wbqvgK| fve‡Z AevK jv‡M| †cø‡Uv, Gwi÷Uj, c‡o _vK| Avgiv Avgv‡`i g‡Zv K‡i| 26
1990 mv ‡j Gikv` †b‡g †M‡jb| †m AMÖnY‡hvM¨ wQ‡jv| wKš‘ jvf wK n‡jv| AvgivB ev wK Kijvg| A‡bK Ackb wQ‡jv| ivRbxwZi cÖvwZôvwbKxKi‡bi gnvjMœ G‡mwQj| me nvZQvov n‡q †Mj| hviv ÿgZvq emj wK eySj Rvwb bv| ivRbxwZ‡K wb‡Ri g‡b Kij| †`k GKUv e„ÿ| Gi hZœ Ki‡Z nq| cvwb w`‡Z nq| mvi w`‡Z nq| Z‡eB G‡Z dj a‡i| Avgiv Gi cvZv, dzj, dj wQo‡Z ïiæ Kijvg| `viæb| 1975-80, 1981-90, 1990-96| `viæb me mgq Kvj| †`k ga¨hy‡Mi w`‡K nuvU‡Z ïiæ Kij| Avgiv wbwe©Kvi iBjvg| fve‡Z AevK jv‡M| K_vq e‡j †m RvwZ `yfv© Mv hvi exi‡fvM¨v mšÍvb †bB| Avm‡j `yfvM©v †mB RvwZ hvi exi‡fvM¨v mšÍvb `iKvi| Avgiv c‡bi †KvwU †jvK wg‡jI GKUv wKQz `uvo Kiv‡Z cvijvg bv| cvi‡ev †Kgb K‡i| Avgv‡`i Kv‡iv mvgvwRK e¨vcv‡ii Rb¨ `ybx©wZ Ki‡Z nq| Kv‡iv Avjy, cUj , gvQ †Kbvi R‡b¨ `ybx©wZ Ki‡Z nq| Ae¯’vi †f` n‡jI Avgiv mevB mgvb| Avevi GKUz ‡cQ‡b hvIqv hvK| cvwK¯Ívbxiv 23 eQi †c‡qwQ‡jv| evsjv‡`k wb‡q Zv‡`i †Kvb cwiKíbv wQ‡jv e‡j †Zv g‡b nq bv| hLbB cÖ‡qvRb c‡o‡Q myweavRbK kvmK emv‡bv n‡q‡Q| Av‡gwiKv, Bsj¨vÛ, ivwkqv GKUv cvj©v‡g›U KvjPvi cÖwZwôZ Ki‡Z †c‡i‡Q| †K ÿgZvq Avm‡e †mUv eo K_v bq, †h Avm‡e Zv‡K ey‡S ï‡bB Avm‡Z n‡e| GB k„•Ljvi ga¨ w`‡q †h‡Z n‡e| wKš‘ Avgv‡`i GLv‡b cvjv©‡g›U n‡PQ `jxq KvPvix| Gi we‡kl †Kvb KvjPvi †bB| A™¢~Z| Gme wb‡q †KD fve‡e bv| 27
GKUv m ¤úª`vq M‡o DV‡Z cviZ nq‡Zv| lv‡Ui `k‡K cvwK¯Ívb we‡ivax Av‡›`vj‡b Avgiv GiKg GKUv †Rbv‡ikb †c‡qwQjvg| Zv‡Z mvwnwZ¨K, wPÎKi mevB wQ‡jv| GLb †KD †bB| GK`j fzj gvbyl µgvMZ wPrKvi Ki‡Q| Zvici cv‡ci fvovi c~Y© n‡j Av‡¯Í Mv‡Qi cvKv d‡ji g‡Zv L‡m co‡Q| Avi GK`j Avm‡Q Ges i³ Lv‡PQ| mgvR e¨e¯’vq †Kvb cwieZ©b †`Lv hv‡”Q bv| nq‡Zv †Kvb AvkvI ‡bB| 1996 mv‡ji wbe©vP‡bi ci †kL nvwmbv ÿgZvq G‡jv| 26 eQ‡ii RÄvj| wZwb cwi¯‥vi Ki‡Z ïiæ Ki‡jb| cÖ_g wKw¯Í‡Z †avjvB wVKg‡Zv nqwb| nVvr K‡i Avevi AZx‡Zi gyL¸‡jv G‡m nvwRi| me ¯’wMZ| †kl †gl cwiw¯’wi cwieZ©b n‡jv| †K ev Kviv nv‡Z a‡i mwVK gvbylUv‡K ewm‡q w`‡jv| †gvUvgywU g›` bq| hw`I A‡h․w³K| hv‡nvK †ek wKQz Amgvß KvR mgvß n‡jv| AviI wKQz mgq `iKvi| RbMY A‡ZvUv fv‡e bv| Kg©gq miKvi KLbB RbwcÖq bq| RbwcÖq miKvi n‡”Q †mB miKvi †h wb‡RI jvfevb nq Ges Ab¨‡KI jvfevb K‡i| wKš‘ nvwmbvi c‡ÿ GgbUv m¤¢e wQ‡jv bv| ZvB Zv‡K wfbœ e¨e¯’v Aej¤^b Ki‡Z n‡jv| ivRbxwZi Pv‡j cÖwZcÿ‡K †fv‡Ui evB‡i cvwV‡q w`‡q wb‡RB _vKvi e¨e¯’v Ki‡jb| Amgvß KvR¸‡jv mgvß Kivi Rb¨| djvdj g›` nqwb| wKQzUv n‡jI Dbœqb n‡q‡Q| n‡q‡Q ms¯‥vi| ivRbxwZ‡Z Avgv‡`i `yRb w`Kcvj wQ‡jb| †nv‡mb knx` †mvnivIqvÏx© Ges †k‡i evsjv G ‡K dRjyj nK| `yRbB inm¨gq| GKRb G‡jv‡g‡jv| Ab¨Rb e¨_©| `yR‡bi `yB 28
mgm ¨v| ZiæY gywReB ZvB Avgv‡`i Avkv AvKvsÿvi cÖZxK n‡q D‡VwQ‡jb| Bmjvgx ‡`k¸‡jv memgqB myweavRbK Ae¯’vq wQ‡jv| wKš‘ †Kb Rvwb KLbB Giv wb‡R‡`i ¸uwQ‡q wb‡Z cv‡iwb| `yPvi wgwQj wgwUs, K‡qKUv nvgjv Gme w`‡q wK ivRbxwZ nq| ivRbxwZ Ki‡Z n‡j Zv‡K me©MÖvmx n‡Z n‡e| Bmjvgx ivRbxwZi K_v‡Zv AviI mZ¨| GLv‡b mgš^‡qi †Kvb my‡hvM †bB| GKgyLx c_| ZvInx` ev`x‡`i Rb¨ weKí †Kvb iv¯Ív †bB| A‡cÿvi my‡hvM †bB| Avjøvni AvB‡bi †Kvb cwieZ©b, mgš^q, ms‡hvRb-we‡qvRb P‡j bv| G‡K Gi g‡Zv K‡iB Kv‡qg Ki‡Z n‡e| wKš‘ †K GUv Ki‡e| Avgv‡`i wb‡R‡`i g‡a¨ †fRvj| †h kwilv w`‡q f~Z Qvov‡e Zv‡ZB hw` f~Z _v‡K Zvn‡j f~Z Qvov‡e †K? Bmjvgx `j¸‡jv AvRI Rv‡b bv Zv‡`i Kg©aviv wK? Ggb K‡i KLbI Bmjvg Kv‡qg n‡e bv| Bmjvg G‡m‡Q mevi wecix‡Z| GB K_vUv gv_vq ivL‡Z n‡e| G‡K mgš^q Kiv hvq bv| Ki‡j AviI wec‡` co‡Z nq| Avjøvn&i Rwg‡b Avjøvn&i Øxb‡K mgybœZ ivL‡Z Avjøvn& wb‡RB h‡_ó| Avgv‡`i `iKvi †bB G‡Z †fRvj wgkv‡bv| Zvi †P‡q wbi‡cÿ †_‡K Av‡›`vjb Pvwj‡q hvIqv fv‡jv| GKw`b bv GKw`b m‡Z¨i Rq n‡eB| wKš‘ Avgiv wK KiwQ| A‡b¨i Zv‡e`vix K‡i ÿgZvq †h‡Z PvBwQ| Gfv‡e Bmjvg Kv‡qg nqwb| n‡eI bv| Zv‡K ZvKIqvi Dci _vK‡Z n‡e| gyRvwn` nIqv A‡ZvUv mnR bq| mevi Av‡M †KviAvb I nv`x‡mi mwVK eyS `iKvi| GB RvqMvUvi welq c~Y©Zv| cvwK¯Ívbxiv Avgv‡`i gymwjg fvB wQ‡jv| wKš‘ a‡g©i eÜb Avgv‡`i GB m¤úK©‡K euvPv‡Z cv‡iwb| 29
Avgiv Zv ‡`i ØvivB wbM„nxZ n‡qwQjvg| eis cvk¦©eZx© †`k fviZ Avgv‡`i ¯^ag©xq bv n‡jI 1971 mv‡j Avgv‡`i `yw`©‡b cv‡k `uvwo‡qwQ‡jv| Zv‡`i •mb¨iv AvZ¥vûwZ w`‡qwQ‡jv Avgv‡`i ¯^vaxbZvi R‡b¨| me‡P‡q eo K_v Dfq cvwK¯Ív‡bi mvgvwRK e¨eavb ivR‣bwZK MÖnY‡hvM¨Zv‡K Qvwc‡q wM‡qwQj| d‡j ivóªwU gvÎ 23 eQ‡ii gv_vq †f‡½ c‡o| AevK Kivi e¨vcvi ivR‣bwZK cwiP‡q GKUv ivóª n‡jI †Kvb w`K w`‡qB Avgiv GKK ivóª wQjvg bv| GgbwK Avgiv GKUv fv‡jv WwgwbqbI wQjvg bv| wb¤œ gv‡bi cwiPvjK‡`i Øviv GKUv ivóª cwiPvwjZ n‡j hv nq| me wKQz †f‡½ c‡o| cvwK¯Ív‡bi †ÿ‡Î ZvB n‡qwQj| Avgiv GK mgq cwðg cvwK¯Ív‡bi mv‡_ wQjvg GUv †hgb mZ¨ GLb Avi †bB GUvI †Zgb mZ¨| wKš‘ wek¦ ivRbxwZi GKUv `ievi Av‡Q| Av‡Q Avgv‡`i gvbwlK GKUv Ae¯’vb| mewKQzi ciI GKUv K_v ejv `iKvi| Avgv‡`i GLv‡b A‡b‡KB AvR Zxeª cvwK¯Ívb we‡Øl‡K ivRbxwZ‡Z Zvi Ae¯’vb cvKv‡cv³ Kivi Rb¨ e¨envi K‡i| GUv †gv‡UI fv‡jv wKQz bq| A‡b¨i cÖwZ we‡Øl bq| Kv‡iv mv‡_ cyi‡bv kÎæZv _vK‡ZB cv‡i| ZvB e‡j †mUv‡K cÖwZwbqZ cuywR K‡i mvg‡b AvMv‡bv GK ai‡bi Amy¯’ cÖwZ‡hvwMZv| eZ©gvb •ewk¦K ‡cÖÿvc‡U evsjv‡`k †Kb ‡h ¸iæZ¡c~Y© Avgvi gv_vq Av‡m bv| fvi‡Zi Kv‡Q †f․‡MvwjK Kvi‡b Gi wKQzUv ¸iæZ¡ _vK‡Z cv‡i| †m‡fb wmóv‡ii mv‡_ †hvMv‡hvM GKUv d¨v±i| me‡P‡q eo K_v evsjv‡`‡ki mv¤ú&ªwZK Dbœq‡b 30
A ‡b‡Ki gv_v e¨v_v Ki‡Q| GUv GKUv mgm¨v n‡Z cv‡i| wØZxqZ evsjv‡`k AvšÍRv© wZK †ÿ‡Î gymwjg we‡k¦i ¸iæZ¡c~Y© Bm~¨¸‡jv wb‡q wbR¯^ GKUv g‡bvfve †cvlb K‡i| ‡KvwU gymjgvb‡`i GKUv †`‡ki R‡b¨ GUv M‡e©i wKQz bq| gymwjg we‡k¦i R‡b¨ weiw³i| †hLv‡b ag© AvR wek¦‡K Aj‡iWx wef³ K‡i †d‡j‡Q †mLv‡b GKUv gymwjg ivóª n‡q evsj‡`‡ki GB wfbœ gZev` Bmjvg cš’x‡`i‡K ivMv‡e GUvB ¯^vfvweK| Avgv‡`‡K hy³ Kivi R‡b¨ nq‡Zv †Póv Pvjv‡”Q| K_v n‡jv eZ©gv‡b we‡k¦i cwiw¯’wZ‡Z gymjgvb‡`i GB wXj †Quvov weagx©‡`i Kvgv‡bi wecix‡Z wK †Kvb Kvh©Kix djvdj e‡q Avb‡e| g‡b †Zv nq bv| Gi †P‡q eis weKí wKQz wPšÍv Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i| cy‡iv gymwjg wek¦ GK‡Î GK‡hv‡M cÖwZev` Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i| wKš‘ Zv wK K‡i m¤¢e| gymjgvbivB ‡Zv AvR Avi HK¨e× †bB| Zviv wb‡RivB wnsmv nvbvnvwb‡Z e¨¯Í| Zv‡`iB ev mvgjv‡e †K? cvð‡Z¨i eo eo cwÛ‡Ziv Zv‡`i wewfbœ M‡elYv Øviv ivóÖbvqK‡`i Øviv ivóª cwiPvjbvi w`K wb‡`©kbv wba©viY K‡i †`b| Avgv‡`i GLv‡b miKvi wKQz m¯Ív civgk©`vZvi Avkvq e‡m _v‡Kb| gv_v w`‡q wKQz ‡ei nq bv| hvi wb‡Ri gv_vq wKQz ‡bB †m Ab¨‡K fvebv †`‡e wKfv‡e| Gfv‡e cwieZ©b m¤¢e bq| 1990 mv‡ji ci KwgDwb÷ c„w_exi cZ‡bi ci cy‡iv c„w_ex GK ‡giæKiY n‡q c‡o| hy³ivóª GKKfv‡e KvR Ki‡Z ïiæ K‡i| †m Zvi ÿgZv‡KI Kv‡R jvMv‡Z ïiæ K‡i| wKš‘ GB Ae¯’v †ekx w`b Pj‡Z cvij bv| `yGK `kK †h‡Z bv †h‡ZB ivwkqv Avevi gv_v Zz‡j `uvovq| Zvi mv‡_ †hvM †`q 31
Av ‡gwiKv we‡ivax ivóª¸‡jv| BD‡iv‡ci mg_©bI A‡bKUv Ry‡U hvq ivwkqvi Kcv‡j| me©‡kl Ae¯’v ‡`‡L g‡b nq ivRbxwZi dmj ZvivB N‡i Zzj‡e| Z‡e Avgvi g‡b nq mvgwqKfv‡e †eªw·U GKUv av°v n‡jI weªwUk GKw`b bv GKw`b gv_v Zz‡j `uvov‡e| BD‡iv‡ci mv‡_ _vK‡j Zvi AvwfRvZ¨ Kg‡e •e evo‡e bv| evsjv‡`k •ewk¦K ivRbxwZi †Kvcvb‡j c‡o 1971 mv‡ji ¯^vaxbZv hy‡×i g‡a¨ w`‡q| ZrKvjxb cvwK¯Ívb Av‡gwiKvi QÎQvqvq `gb cxob Pvwj‡q f~LÛwU‡K AvM‡j ivL‡Z †P‡qwQ‡jv| GR‡b¨ cvwK¯Ívb‡KI Av‡gwiKvi Rb¨ wKQz GKUv Ki‡Z n‡qwQ‡jv| Px‡bi mv‡_ Av‡gwiKvi mym¤úK© •Zixi e¨vcv‡i cvwK¯Ívb SuzwKc~Y© fv‡e mvnv‡h¨i nvZ evwo‡qwQ‡jv| Av‡gwKvi †hgb cvwK¯Ívb‡K cÖ‡qvRb wQ‡jv †Zgwb cvwK¯Ív‡biI Av‡gwiKvi cÖ‡qvRb wQ‡jv| ejvB evûj¨ Df‡qi ¯^v‡_©i ewj n‡qwQ‡jv evsjv‡`k| †mB ÿZ AvRI ï‡Kvqwb| Zvi ci †`k ¯^vaxb n‡jv| wKš‘ †mB †h evsjv‡`k AvšÍR©vwZK ivRbxwZi mvwK©‡U P‡j †Mj †mLvb †_‡K Avi †ei n‡q Avm‡Z cv‡iwb| †kL gywRe mgvRZ‡š¿i w`‡K SuyK‡jb bv| fvi‡Zi mv‡_ mym¤úK© ivL‡jI Zv n‡jv mgZv Avi eÜz‡Z¡i wfwË‡Z| Lye GKUv †h Qvo w`‡jb Zv wKš‘ bq| wKš‘ cwiw¯’wZ RwUj n‡q hvq cieZx©Kv‡j| gywRe Av‡¯Í Av‡¯Í Bmjvgx we‡k¦i w`‡K Suy‡K c‡ob| GUv Zvi R‡b¨ cÖ‡qvRbI wQ‡jv| Bmjvgx we‡k¦i mg_©b Qvov Zvi AvMv‡bv KwVb wQ‡jv| Avi GR‡b¨B wZwb 1974 mv‡ji IAvBwm m‡¤§j‡b †hvM w`‡jb| me©bvkUv n‡jv 32
GLv ‡bB| †hLv‡b wZwb fz‡Ævi Kuv‡a Kuva ivL‡jb| AvšÍR©vwZK gnj Amš‘ó n‡jv| †`‡k Ges †`‡ki evB‡i cwiw¯’wZ Ggb †Nvjv‡U nw”Qj †h ivR‣bwZK ms¯‥v‡i †Kvb KvR n‡jv bv| KwZcq `yó cªK…wZi †jvK Amnvq gywR‡ei cÖvbUvB wb‡q wb‡jv| djvdj fv‡j nqwb| cÖwZwnsmvi ivRbxwZi exR †ivwcZ n‡jv wPiw`‡bi R‡b¨| AvIqvgx jxM †Kvb w`b GB nZ¨vKvÛ‡K fzj‡Z cvi‡e bv| hy‡M hy‡M evi evi Ny‡i wd‡i GB †kvK kw³ n‡q Avm‡e| Avm‡e †PZbv n‡q| Avi GLvb †_‡KB R¡‡j DV‡e Av¸b| †mB Av¸b †h AvRxeb R¡j‡e Zv ejvB evûj¨| me‡P‡q eo K_v GKevi hv ïiæ nq Zv †kl Kiv eo KwVb| evsjv‡`‡ki †ÿ‡Î ¯^vaxbZvi ci †_‡K G ch©šÍ m„ó mgm¨v¸‡jvi GKUviI mgvavb nqwb| eis w`‡b w`‡b Ny‡i wd‡i ivRbxwZi Dc`vb n‡q G‡m‡Q| Pjgvb GB cwiw¯’i ga¨ w`‡q ag© wfwËK ivRbxwZi AbymvixivI ‡_‡g bvB| Zviv cÖ_g w`‡K `vIqvZ Avi Avnev‡bi ga¨ w`‡q AvMv‡Zv| eZ©gv‡b Zv cÖvqB mwnsm iƒc wb‡”Q| we‡kl K‡i 2007 Gi ci AvIqvgx jxM ÿgZvq G‡j welqwU µgkt †KvbVvmv n‡q c‡o| d‡j Zviv weKí LuyR‡Z _v‡K| Avi GB weKí LuyR‡Z wM‡q A‡b¨i mv‡_ nvZ wgwj‡q e‡m| Qvqv w`‡Z _v‡K my‡hvM mÜvbx gvbyl¸‡jv‡K| GKUv g~j avivi ivR‣bwZK `j Zvi Wvjcvjv Øviv cwiPvwjZ n‡Z _v‡K| d‡j hv nevi ZvB nq| euv‡ki †P‡q KwÂ eo n‡Z _v‡K| g~j `j cÖvq nvwi‡q †h‡Z e‡m‡Q| _vbv wKsev cÖkvmb¸‡jv w`‡b w`‡b weK„Z gvbwmKZv wb‡q mvg‡b Avm‡Q| g‡b n‡PQ GKUv ev‡R cwiw¯’wZi w`‡K hv‡”Q evsjv‡`k| me‡P‡q `ytLRbK n‡jv 33
we ‡ivax `j wn‡m‡e RvZxq cvwU© AZ¨šÍ bvRyK| GKUv fv‡jv we‡ivax `j †`k I MYZ‡š¿i R‡b¨ GKUv fv‡jv kw³| Avgiv hw` GKUz AZx‡Z wd‡i hvB †`Le lv‡Ui `k‡K Avgv‡`i ivRbxwZi weeZ©‡bi me‡P‡q De©i mgq| GB `k‡KB Ggb me NUbv N‡U †M‡Q hv cieZ©x‡Z ¯^vaxbZvi wfwËf~wg •Zwi K‡iwQj| ivR‣bwZK `j¸‡jvi g‡a¨ cvi¯úwiK mngwg©Zv I mn‡hvwMZv wQj| Avgv‡`i mevi Kgb kÎæ GKB wQ‡jv e‡jB wK GB HK¨| wKš‘ hLbB Avgiv Avgv‡`i wnm¨v ey‡S †cjvg Avgv‡`i g‡a¨B KvovKvwo ïiæ n‡q †M‡jv| 1961 mv‡j ivR‣bwZK Av‡›`vj‡bi †h wfwËf~wg iwPZ n‡qwQj 1962i wkÿv Av‡›`vjb Zv‡K me©vwaK †eMevb K‡iwQj| kwid Kwgk‡bi •elg¨g~jK wkÿvbxwZi weiæ‡× mevB †mv”Pvi n‡hwQ‡jv| †mB cwiw¯’wZ mvgjv‡Z nvwg`yi ingvb Kwgkb Kiv n‡jv| wKš‘ jvf wKQzB nqwb| Av‡¯Í Av‡¯Í Av¸b AviI R¡j‡Z ïiæ K‡i| 1965†Z G‡m wbe©vPb n‡jv| AvBqye Lvb wRZ‡jbI| wKš‘ Zv‡ZI jv‡fi e`‡j me©bvkB n‡jv †ewk| GB wbe©vPbB g~jZt Zvi aŸs‡mi MwZc_ •Zwi K‡i w`j| 1966 mv‡j G‡m evsjvi BwZnv‡mi me‡P‡q hyMvšÍKvix NUbvUv NUj| †kL gywRe Qq `dv †ck Ki‡jb| Avi hvq †Kv_vq| evsjvi Avcvgi Rbmvavib Qq `dvi mv‡_ HKgZ¨ †Nvlbv Ki‡jv| mevB GK‡RvU n‡jv Qq `dvi `vex‡Z| †kL gywRe Awemsevw`Z †bZvq cwibZ n‡jb| †mB †h ivRbxwZi gvV DËvj n‡jv Zv‡K Avi _vgv‡bv hvqwb| 1968i AvMiZjv lohš¿ gvgjv †mB Av¸‡b wN †X‡jv w`‡jv| 1969 Gi 34
MYAf ~¨Ìvb Gi cwibwZ| Ae‡k‡l G‡jv eû Kvw•LZ mË‡ii wbe©vPb| ev½vjxi P~ovšÍ weRq ¯^vaxbZvi c‡ÿ me‡P‡q eo wbqvgK n‡q ‡M‡jv| gywRe Zvi 7B gv‡P©i fvl‡b GB K_vUv Nywi‡q ‡cuwP‡q Rvwb‡q w`‡jb| Zvici hv wKQz N‡U‡Q Zvi wKQzUv Rvbv| wKQzUv AvRI inm¨gq| Uvbv cuwPk w`b A_©vr 1jv gvP© †_‡K cuwP‡k gvP© †kL gywRe Ges cvK evwnbxi g‡a¨ wK K_vevZ©v n‡q‡Q Zv AvRI BwZnv‡mi AÜKv‡i i‡q †M‡Q| †hUzKz Rvbv †M‡Q Zv n‡jv Av‡jvPbv AZ¨šÍ AvšÍwiK cwi‡e‡k n‡PQ| GKUv mgvav‡b nq‡Zv †cu․Qvbv m¤¢e n‡e| wKš‘ †mB MšÍ‡e¨ Avi †cu․Qv‡bv m¤¢e nqwb| Ae‡k‡l 25†k gvP© Kv‡jv iv‡Z hy×Uv †eu‡aB †M‡jv| Aek¨ Gi cÖ‡qvRbI wQ‡jv| 23 eQ‡ii R¡vjv ‡cvov| †k‡l hy×| Amy¯’ †ivMx‡K Acv‡ikb K‡i my¯’ Kiv Qvov Dcvq wQ‡jv bv| mevB e‡j GUv wQ‡jv gyw³hy×| ïay KwZcq †jvK e‡j GUv †Kvb hy× wQ‡jv bv| GUv wQ‡jv MÛ‡Mvj| Avwg GLbI ey‡ov eyox‡`i ej‡Z ïwb NUbvUv N‡UwQj MÛ‡Mv‡ji eQi| KvD‡K †`vl w`‡q jvf †bB| we‡ivaxiv me mgqB kw³kvjx Ges msL¨v¸iæ wQ‡jv| Zviv †h avibv cÖwZwôZ K‡iwQj ZvB gvby‡li g‡b †Mu‡_ †M‡Q| GKvËi †Kvb MÛ‡Mvj bq| c„w_exi BwZnv‡m me‡P‡q gnvb ¯^vaxbZv hy×¸‡jvi g‡a¨ GKwU| Aek¨B gyw³hy×| GLbI Pj‡Q| nqZ AvMvgx‡ZI Pj‡e| GUv GKUv ¯^vfvweK cÖwµqv| wKš‘ `yt‡Li welq gyw³†hv×viv 16B wW‡m¤^i P~ovšÍ weRq AwR©Z 35
n ‡q‡Q g‡b K‡i hy× †_‡K m‡i †Mj| Avi †mB myev‡` †g․gvwQiv G‡m e‡m coj| e¨vcviUv Lye GKUv mywe‡ai nqwb| 1972 †_‡K 1975 ch©šÍ †h KvovKvwoUv n‡jv Zv Avi ejvi A‡cÿv iv‡L bv| cy‡iv wPÎUvB †M‡jv cv‡ë| ¯^vaxbZv Avi †`k‡cÖ‡gi c‡ÿi gvbyl¸‡jv gywR‡ei Pvi cv‡k wfo Kiv PvgPv‡`i av°vq mnmÖ gvBj `~‡i m‡i †M‡jv| ZvRDÏxb Avng` n‡jb cÖ_g ewji cvVv| Zvici Av‡¯Í Av‡¯Í wPÎ AviI e`jv‡Z jvM‡jv| wbDwK¬qvm †f‡½ †Mj| AZtci evgcš’xiv hviv †mB lv‡Ui `kK †_‡K evsjv‡K Zv‡`i ey‡Ki wfZi AvM‡j †i‡LwQ‡jv| A‡b‡KB ¯^vaxbZv cieZ©x mg‡q Rvm‡`i cÖwZ AvIqvgx jx‡Mi we‡Øl Ges Kvh©Kjv‡ci K_v GKUz i‡q m‡q e‡jb| GLv‡b i‡q m‡q ejvi wKQz †bB| Rvm` hw` GB Bmy¨‡Z GKUv M„nhy×I euvwa‡q w`‡Zv Zvn‡jI †`v‡li wKQz wQ‡jv bv| Av‡e‡Mi RvqMvq Nv jvM‡j ‡evSv hvq KZUv jv‡M| 36
evsjv ‡`k †Kvb c‡_ 1947 mv‡ji 14B AvM÷ cvwK¯Ív‡bi R‡b¥i g‡a¨ w`‡q c~e© evsjvi fvM¨ wba©vwiZ n‡q hvq| GKwU msKi RvwZ wn‡m‡e eiveiB Aw¯’i cÖK…wZi GB RvwZwU Zvi ag©, eY©, ms¯‥…wZi gZB •ewPÎ¨gq| 1947 †_‡K 2016 mvj ch©šÍ GB 70 eQ‡i RvwZwU †h c_ cwiµgv AwZµg K‡i‡Q Zv mwZ¨B Zvi RvwZMZ HwZ‡n¨ †Kvb wKQz †hvM K‡i‡Q bvwK w`‡b w`‡b AÜKv‡ii AZj MnŸ‡i wb‡q †M‡Q †mUv Aek¨B fveevi welq| mgq Zvi wbR¯^ MwZ‡Z AwZµvšÍ n‡q †M‡Q| c„w_exi ey‡K A‡bK AatcwZZ RvwZ gv_v Zz‡j `uvwo‡q‡Q| wm½vcyi, gvj‡qwkqv, _vBj¨vÛ wKsev wf‡qZbv‡gi g‡Zv †`k¸‡jv we‡kl GKUv Cl©bxq Ae¯’v‡b P‡j G‡m‡Q| A‡bK RvwZ Zvi LvZvq A‡bK wKQz †hvM K‡i‡Q| †Kvb †Kvb RvwZ ïaygvÎ mvs¯‥…wZK AR©‡bi ga¨ w`‡q we‡kl †bZ…¯v’ bxq Ae¯’v‡b P‡j G‡m‡Q| Gme mvd‡j¨i Lei| Avb›` Avi Av‡e‡Mi Lei| wKš‘ Avgiv GB 70 eQ‡i †Kv_v †_‡K †Kv_vq Gjvg GUv †f‡e †`‡LwQ wK? GB `xN© mg‡q Avgiv ïaygvÎ ARmÖ AgxgvswmZ cÖ‡kœi Rb¥ w`‡qwQ hv wb‡q Avgv‡`i‡K AvMvgx AviI 200 eQi SvMov SvwU Ki‡Z n‡e| GUv †Kvb AR©b bq| eis Gi †P‡q Avgiv hw` GKUv RvqMvq w¯’i n‡q _vKZvg ZvI fv‡jv wQ‡jv| gb PvB‡j †mLvb †_‡K ïiæ Ki‡Z cviZvg| GLb NUbv AviI RwUj n‡q‡Q| GB fzj¸‡jvi Rb¥ w`‡Z †h mgq †j‡M‡Q †m¸‡jv gyQ‡Z n‡j Gi †P‡q AviI †ewk mgq jvM‡e| wKš‘ Avgiv wK †mB mgq 37
cv ‡ev| GZw`‡b c„w_ex Zvi wbR¯^ f~LÛ †Q‡o Ab¨ †Kvb Mªn bÿ‡Î AvkÖq bv †bq| ev½vwj AvR abyK †_‡K †ewi‡q hvIqv Zx‡i cwiYZ n‡q‡Q| Zv‡K †div‡bv KwVb| ev‡R‡Ui AvK…wZ †e‡o‡Q| BU, KvV, cv_‡ii `„k¨gvb Dbœqb n‡q‡Q| †ekwKQz bMivqb n‡q‡Q| †gvUvgywU fv‡jv GKUv wRwbZ jÿ¨ Kiv hv‡”Q| meB `viæb| wKš‘ K_v n‡jv Avgiv Avgv‡`i gb-gvbwmKZvq K‡ZvUv Gi mv‡_ GKgZ n‡Z †c‡iwQ| ‡gv‡UI bv| Avi ZvB‡Zv mwZ¨Kv‡ii ‡`k‡cÖwgK GLb hv`yN‡i VuvB wb‡q‡Q| †`k Rz‡o fÛ Avi cÖZvi‡Ki ivRZ¡ Pj‡Q| GKUv RvwZi Afvex nIqv wKsev AwkwÿZ nIqv †Zgb †Kvb `ytmsev` bq| Mix‡ei mycyÎ abxi Kzcy‡Îi †P‡q A‡bK eo Avkxe©v`| RvwZ wn‡m‡e Avgiv AvR GKUv `ytL RbK Ae¯’vb G‡m `uvwo‡qwQ| Avgv‡`i gyw³i `vIqvB GLbI Abvwe¯‥…Z| 1947 mv‡j Avgiv hLb Avjv`v njvg hv‡`i mv‡_ Ry‡o †`Iqv n‡jv Zv‡`i mv‡_ Avgv‡`i †Kvb g‡ZB hvq bv| G †hb ‡Nvovi mv‡_ †fov‡K †e‡a †`Iqv| GK`j Avkivd Gi mv‡_ GK`j AvZivd †K Ry‡o †`Iqv n‡jv| nvRvi eQ‡i eû RvwZi msKivq‡bi d‡j m„ó GKUv wewPÎ RvwZmËvi AwaKvix ag©všÍwiZ gvbyl¸‡jv bv Zv‡`i AZxZ HwZ‡n¨i mv‡_ wgk‡Z cviwQj, bv cwic~Y© gymjgvb n‡q cvwK¯Ívbx‡`i mv‡_ wg‡k †h‡Z cviwQ‡jv| ev½vjx AvRI Rv‡b bv †h †m ev½vjx bv gymjgvb| GB hLb Ae¯’v ZLb cÖPÛ GKUv gvbwmK Pv‡ci ga¨ w`‡q Avgiv ïiæ K‡iwQjvg| hZB w`b hvw”Qj Avgiv Avgv‡`i Z_vKw_Z ¯^agx© Ges ¯^RvwZi Kv‡QB wb‡R‡`i AvB‡Ww›UwU 38
LuyR ‡Z e¨¯Í| ïiæ †_‡KB GKUv mgm¨v| Avgiv ev½vjx bv cwK¯Ívbx bvwK gymjgvb bvwK ev½vjx gymjgvb bvwK fviZxq bvwK Ggb wKQz hv Avgv‡`i Av‡`․ Rvbv bvB| G cÖm‡½ Avgvi ive‡bi K_vI g‡b c‡o †Mj| n‡Z cv‡i †miKg wKQz GKUv| n‡jI AevK nIqvi wKQz †bB| G‡Zv iƒ‡c eûiƒcx Avi †Kv_vI †`Lv hvq bv| GKUv AmvaviY mgš^qnxbZv| Avgiv Avm‡j wK? ev½vjx? gymjgvb? cvwK¯Ívbx? Gme GLbI AmxgvswmZ| AgxgvswmZ GB R‡b¨ †h Avcwb hw` GKUv Rwic Pvjvb A™¢~Z me DËi †ewi‡q Avm‡e| GKUv RvwZ GKwesk kZvãx‡Z G‡mI Rv‡b bv †m Avm‡j wK? weªwUkiv Rv‡b Zviv weªwUk| Rvg©vbiv Rv‡b Zviv Rvg©vb| divmxiv Rv‡b Zviv divmx| mevB Rv‡b| ïay Avgiv Rvwb bv Avgiv Kviv| `k Rb‡K wRÁvmv Ki‡j `k iKg Reve| iv‡qi R‡b¨ Av`vj‡Zi kibvcbœ nIqv DwPZ| †Kvb wKQz AgxgvswmZ _vKvi PvB‡Z Zvi gxgvsmv nIqv A‡bK fv‡jv| †nvK bv Zv wec‡ÿ| Avwg wb‡R‡K wK eje GB wb‡q mwVK †Kvb Reve Avgvi Kv‡Q AšÍZt †bB| Avgv‡`i Kv‡QI †bB| Avgv‡`i RvZxqZvev` wK? ev½vjx bv evsjv‡`kx| †K ej‡Z cvi‡e mwVK K‡i| cwðg e‡½I ev½vjx Av‡Q| Zviv GLbI †ewki fvMB Rv‡Z IVvi R‡b¨ wnw›`‡Z K_v e‡j| Avgv‡`i‡K gvb‡ZI ivwR bv| GKUv †`k †hb GKUv wew”Qbœ Rbc`| Gi †P‡q GKUv †Kvb my¯úó cwiPq wba©vwiZ nIqvB fv‡jv wQ‡jv| Aek¨ gymjgv‡bi Rb¨ Ab¨ †Kvb cwiP‡qi cÖ‡qvRb c‡i bv| wKš‘y Avgiv ‡mB RvqMvUvq †cu․Qv‡Z cvwiwb| Avgiv c‡o AvwQ †mB ‡bv g¨vbm j¨v‡Û| evsjv‡`‡ki kZKiv cÖvq 90 Rb gymjgvb| Bmjvg G‡`‡k †h Lze GKUv 39
bZzb ZvI wK š‘y bq| `vIqvZ bvwK ûRyi (mvt) Gi mg‡qB G‡mwQj| Aviexqiv ex‡ii RvwZ| Zviv wek¦gq Qwo‡q c‡owQj| wKš‘ ev½vjxi eûZ¡ev` Qvo‡Z †ek mgq †j‡MwQj| LvRv gvCbyÏxb wPkwZ, kvnRvjvj, kvncivb, kvn gL`yg, nhiZ Lvb Rvnvb Avjx, wbRvgDwÏb AvDwjqv BZ¨vw` gnvb eyhy‡M©i gva¨‡g ax‡i ax‡i Bmjv‡gi weKvk n‡Z ïiæ K‡i| A¯^xKvi Kivi Dcvq †bB †h Bmjvg wb¤œ¯Í‡ii gvby‡li Kv‡QB †ewk RbwcÖq n‡qwQj| wKš‘ me‡P‡q gnvb mZ¨ gymjgvb nIqvi ci Zvi Avi †Kvb †f` _v‡K bv| wKš‘ Avgv‡`i i‡q †M‡Q| KviY GKUvB| Avgiv bv cwic~Y© gymjgvb bv cwic~Y© ev½vjx| GKUv A™¢Z ~ ‣PZ‡b¨i †fZi w`‡q kZvãxi ci kZvãx cvi K‡i GLbI ivZvivwZ GKUv RMv wLPzix‡Z cwibZ n‡qwQ| Avgiv mevB Gme Rvwb| wKš‘ AZ¨šÍ my‡K․k‡j w`‡bi ci w`b ZK© weZK© K‡i hvw”Q| mZ¨ K_v ej‡Z Avgv‡`i hZ euvav| Avgiv g~jZt GKUv A™¢Z ~ •ecix‡Z¨i ga¨ w`‡q AwZµg KiwQ| GKRb wek¦weL¨vZ ivóªweÁvbx we‡k¦i †h me gymwjg †`k¸‡jv weagx©‡`i Rb¨ ûgwK ¯^iƒc D‡jøL K‡i‡Qb Zvi g‡a¨ evsjv‡`‡ki bvg †bB| eyS‡Z ci‡Qb Avgv‡`i gymjgvb n‡Z AviI wKQz c_ cvwo w`‡Z n‡e| Zvn‡j cÖkœ Av‡Q Avgiv wK cvðv‡Z¨i Nivbvi AvaywbK evsjv‡`‡k cwibZ n‡Z †c‡iwQ| ZvI cvwiwb| Avgiv †NvgUv c‡o bvP‡Z †b‡gwQ| me©bvkUv n‡q‡Q GLv‡b| †fvM wKsev Dc‡fvM `y‡UvB Avgv‡`i Kv‡Q Aaiv gvayix| gb Pvq Quz‡q †`wL| cv‡Q †Kv_vq †hb evu‡a| GiKg GKUv †`vUvbvi ga¨ w`‡q c_ Pjv †h KZUv KwVY Zv e‡j †evSv‡bv gyw®‥j| 40
me ‡P‡q eo K_v GB mgm¨v ïay e¨w³ Rxe‡bB bq| mgvR A_ev ivóªxq Rxe‡bi me©Î Gi we¯Ívi| msweavb w`‡qB ïiæ Kiv hvK| ivóª cwiPvwjZ n‡”Q ag© wbi‡cÿZvi bxwZ‡Z| msweav‡bi ïiæ‡Z wem&wgjøvwni ingvwbi iwng †hvM K‡i wK eySv‡Z PvBwQ? ivóª ag© Bmjvg ej‡Z Avm‡j wK eySvq? 90 fvM gymjgv‡bi †`‡k GiKg RMvwNPzox msweavb w`‡q Pvjv‡bvi wK `iKvi| †KviAvb I mybœvn&i wfwË‡ZB PjyK| bv n‡j RvMwZK AvBb Kvbyb ev †j․wKKZvi ØvivB cwiPvwjZ nDK| c„w_exi Ab¨vb¨ ivóª †hfv‡e Pj‡Q| Avgv‡`i Rb¨ GiKg D™¢U e¨e¯’v †Kb| Avgiv gymjgvb| GK_v eo Mjvq ej‡Z Avgv‡`i AvUKv‡”Q †Kb? Avgiv AvaywbK GK_v ej‡ZI ev Avgv‡`i AvUKv‡”Q †Kv_vq? Avgiv Avm‡j wK? gymjgv‡bi `y‡Uv cwiPq wK K‡i m¤¢e? A‡bK welq Av‡Q fveevi| fveevi mgq dzwi‡q hv‡”Q Av‡¯Í Av‡¯Í| wKš‘ †KD Gme wb‡q gv_v Nvgv‡”Q bv| gv_v Nvgv‡bvi R‡b¨ KwZcq †jvK ivZvivwZ wKQz †jvK‡K a‡i Mjv †K‡U w`‡”Q| wK cÖgvb Ki‡Z Pv‡”Q Zviv| †evSv hv‡”Q bv wK Kibxq| †Kb, †Kv_vq, wKfv‡e Rvbv bvB e‡j| †c‡j ev g¨viv‡Wvbvi g‡a¨ †K †kÖô| `viæb weZK©| `yRb †Zv Avi GK b¤^i n‡Z cv‡i bv| †KD GKRb cÖ_g n‡e| gxgvsmv nqwb| n‡eI bv| evsjv‡`‡ki gvby‡li Ae¯’vI †mB GKB iKg| mevB‡K mš‘ó Ki‡Z wM‡q KvD‡K weivMfvRb Ki‡Z cviwQ bv| `viæb GKUv RwUjZv| Cgvb Avg‡ji e¨vcvi| †mLv‡bI Avevi `yw`‡bi `ywbqvi R‡b¨ AbšÍ kvwšÍ‡K SuzwKi g‡a¨ †djv| bv NiKv bv NvUKv| AvaywbKI n‡Z cvijvg bv| ag©fxiæI n‡Z cvijvg bv| cy‡iv kixi †`Lv‡Z kig jvM‡Q| 41
Avevi GKUz AvaUy †`Lv‡ZI fv‡jv jvM‡Q| GiKg GKUv Ae¯’vqB Avgv‡`i RvZxq mËv Ges RvZxq cwiPq `y‡UvB AvUKv c‡o Av‡Q| Avgiv bv ivRZ‡š¿ AvwQ| bv mgvRZ‡š¿| bv mwZ¨Kv‡ii MbZ‡š¿| GLv‡b wbe©vPb nq| wKš‘ Zvi wbqš¿b _v‡K Z¯‥‡ii nv‡Z| GiKg wbe©vP‡bi `iKviB ev wK? ZeyI †Zv miKvi‡K †jvK †`Lv‡bv wbe©vPb w`‡Z nq| cÖ‡Z¨K RvwZi GKUv mywbw`©ó jÿ¨ gvÎv _vK‡Z nq| _vK‡Z nq myô BwZnvm| GKUv `xN© BwZnvm hv Zv‡`i HwZn¨‡K M‡o †Zv‡j| BD‡iv‡ci cÖ‡Z¨KUv RvwZiB GKUv wbR¯^ `xN© BwZnvm HwZn¨ Av‡Q| Avgv‡`i BwZnvm g~jZt A‡b¨i KZ…©K †kvlb Avi jywÚZ nIqvi BwZnvm| kvmKiv eiveiB AvMš‘K nq| Zviv nq Avh© bv nq Kzjxb| Zviv KLbB Avgv‡`i †KD wQ‡jb bv| `viæb GK ‡eovRv‡j NyicvK †L‡Z †L‡Z g~Nj Avgj, Bs‡iR Avgj cvwK¯Ívbx Avgj †cwi‡q Ae‡k‡l ¯^vaxb evsjv‡`k| ZvI †Zv G‡Kev‡i Kg mgq n‡jv bv| 44 eQi| wKš‘ mgvavb †LuvRvi †Póv wK n‡”Q? RvZxq H‡K¨i K_v ejv nq cÖvqB| RvZxq HK¨ Avevi wK? A‣bK¨ _vK‡j RvwZ nq †Kgb K‡i| HK¨ Av‡Q e‡jB †Zv RvwZ| wKš‘ Avgv‡`i †ÿ‡Î e¨KiY Avjv`v| Avgv‡`i g‡a¨ GLbI †mB HK¨ †bB| Avgiv †KD g‡b g‡b cvwK¯Ívbx| †KD ev fviZxq| Avevi †KD ev ev½vjx| ‡KD ev evsjv‡`kx| †KD ev gymjgvb| †KD Avevi RvwbI bv Avwg Avm‡j wK? GKUv wb`viæb †nqvwj RvZxq wKQz GKUv ej‡Z n‡e| RvZxq BwZnvm wenxb GKUv RvwZ| wb`viæb †eKvq`vq cÖwZwU w`b †K‡U 42
hv ‡PQ| mevB ej‡Q| ‡KD ïb‡Q bv| RvZxq gv_vIqvjv mšÍvbiv eiveiB †KvbVvmv wQ‡jv| GB GKB wPÎ Avgiv Avgv‡`i ms¯‥…wZ‡ZI †`L‡Z cvB| Avgiv Avgv‡`i ms¯‥…wZ wb‡qI wØavwš^Z| GB AÂ‡ji GKUv wbR¯^ †jvKR ms¯‥…wZ wQ‡jv| †mUv ej‡Z †M‡j cÖvq D‡VB †M‡Q| Aek¨ GUvi g‡a¨ wKQz wKQz wkÿYxq welq ev` w`‡j †Zgb fv‡jv wKQz wQ‡jv bv| nvRvi eQ‡ii mbvZb wn›`yy HwZn¨ wQ‡jv Gi wfwËg~j| GUv †_‡K m‡i Avmv `iKvi wQ‡jv| wKš‘ ‡Kv_vq| gymjgvb msL¨vMwió †`‡L Bmjvgx †iIqvR Pvjy nIqvi K_v wQ‡jv| Zv‡Zv n‡jvB bv eis fviZ Ges cwð‡gi wgkÖ ms¯‥…wZi GKUv wg‡kj Gi mv‡_ Avgiv Zvj wgjv‡Z †Póv Kijvg| GUvi •ewkó¨ Ges MÖnb‡hvM¨Zv †Kv‡bvUvB Avgv‡`i mv‡_ hvq bv| ZeyI Zvj †gjv‡bvi †Póv| GKeviI wK ‡f‡e †`‡LwQ Avgiv hvi w`‡K gyL K‡i AvwQ Avgv‡`i c‡ÿ †Kvb w`bI wK ‡mUv nIqv m¤¢e| hw` m¤¢e bv nq Zvn‡j wK jvf AvKv‡ki Puv`‡K ÿzavi iæwU †f‡e| Zvi †P‡q eis Avgiv Avgv‡`i weav‡b mgvavb LuyR‡Z cviZvg| ‡mUv Avgv‡`i Rb¨ GKUv cwiPq n‡Z cviZ| Gi bvg cvMjvgx| Avgv‡`i mvwn‡Z¨iI †mB GKB Ae¯’v| be¨ AvaywbKZv Øviv Av”Qbœ AmsjMœZvq fiv GKUv mvwnZ¨ fvÛvi •Zwi n‡”Q w`‡b w`‡b| GUv GKUv RvZxq †evSv Qvov Avi wKQz bq| Gi g‡a¨ bv agx©q welq Avkq Av‡Q| bv `ywbqvex †Kv‡bv cÖ‡qvR‡bi Riæix †Kvb Z_¨ I ZË¡ Av‡Q| Avgiv Ávb weÁv‡bi †Kvb kvLv‡KB mg„× Ki‡Z cvwiwb| A_P RvZxq jÿ w¯’i nIqv DwPZ wQ‡jv 43
Kviv †Kv_vq Ae`vb ivL‡e| c„w_ex GLb Avgv‡`i †d‡j A‡bK `~i P‡j †M‡Q| m„wóKZ©vI GKcv‡k †V‡j †i‡L‡Qb Avgv‡`i| KvibI Av‡Q| Avgiv bv Zv‡K ï‡bwQ| bv Zvi m„wói AvcvZt `„k¨gvb e¨KiY Abymib K‡iwQ| †Kv‡bv RvwZi g‡a¨ hw` b¨vqwePvi, mZ¨ Ges AvgvbZ`vix _v‡K c„w_exi ey‡K †m RvwZ gvb gh©v`vi AwaKvix n‡e Zv †m †h agx©q wek¦v‡miB AwaKvix †nvK bv †Kb| GUv m„wói wbqg| m„wó RMZ GKUv wbqg †g‡b P‡j| Avgiv †mUv eyS‡Z e¨_© n‡qwQ| ¯^vaxbZvi ci RvwZ wn‡m‡e Avgv‡`i cÖ_g cÖ‡qvRb wQ‡jv GKUv jÿ¨ wba©viY Kiv †h Avgv‡`i RvZxq jÿ¨ wK n‡e| g~jZt Avgv‡`i jÿ¨ wK n‡e| 90 fvM gymjgv‡bi †`k †Kvb MÖnY †hvM¨ g~jbxwZ‡Z mvg‡b AvMv‡e| Gm‡ei wKQzB n‡jv bv| GK GKRb GK GK ai‡bi `k©b Pvjy Ki‡Z †Póv Ki‡jb| †KD ey‡S| †KD bv ey‡S| wfwËnxb GB fyqv `vk©wbK gZev` Øviv †Kvb ivóÖ cwiPvwjZ n‡Z cv‡i bv| nq Zv‡K cvw_©e †Kvb gZev` AuvK‡o ai‡Z n‡e| †mUvI GKUv c×wZ| Avi bv nq Zv‡K ZvKIqvi wfwË‡Z mgvavb LuyR‡Z n‡e| `y‡Uvi mswgkÖ‡b mevi g‡bviÄbKvix `k©b wK †Kvb fvj djvdj w`‡Z cvi‡e| emwbqvi RvwZi RbK Avwjqv B‡RZ‡e‡MvwfP Bmjvgx wWK¬v‡ikb iPbv K‡iwQ‡jb| AZtci ¯^vaxbZv Av‡›`vj‡b Suvwc‡q c‡owQ‡jb| RvwZi Rb¨ w`K wb‡`©kbv wQ‡jv| Zviv Rvb‡Zv GUv gymwjg †`k| Gi jÿ¨ ‡mB g‡g© wb‡`©wkZ| wKš‘ Avgiv AvMvjvg Qq `dvi wfwË‡Z| hvi g~j jÿ¨ ¯^vqZ¡kvmb| ¯^vaxbZvi K_vUv Avm‡jv A‡bK c‡i| †Kv‡bv †gwb‡d‡÷v QvovB| mgvR AvRI Zvi ÿwZ c~iY w`‡”Q| gyjgvb‡`i Rb¨ 44
Avjv `v †Kvb weavb †bB| Zv‡K GKUv c_ a‡iB nuvU‡Z n‡e| †KviAvb I mybœvn&i c_| Avgiv †ec‡_ nuvU‡Z ïiæ Kijvg| kqZvb Avgv‡`i wkÿK n‡q †M‡jv| A_©nxb me gZev` Pvwc‡q w`‡Z jvM‡jv| bv Zv‡Z `ywbqvi Kj¨vY n‡jv| ciKvj †Zv `~‡ii K_v| GKUvi ci GKUv MRe G‡m Avgv‡`i Dci AvcwZZ n‡jv| †h RvwZ ag© †_‡K `~‡i m‡i hvq Zvi Dci MRe wn‡m‡e Rvwjg kvmK Pvwc‡q †`Iqv nq| Avgv‡`i Ae¯’vI †miKgB n‡jv| GKUv Amy¯’ mgvRe¨e¯’v †_‡K hviv wbev©wPZ n‡e ZvivI Amy¯’ n‡e| GUvB ¯^vfvweK| GK`j ¯^vaxbZv PvBj| ZvI A‡b¨i †`Iqv MvBW jvB‡b| GK`j we‡ivaxZv Kij| ZvI A‡b¨i ‡`Iqv MvBW jvB‡b| wbR¯^ we‡eK, `ywbqvex `k©b, wKsev agx©q weavb †Kv‡bvUvB Kvh©Ki Kivi fvebv gv_vq wQ‡jv bv| fz‡j fy‡j Avgvi ¯^‡`k AvR hveZxq `ye„‡Ëi nv‡Z| `~N©Ubv AvR ZvB cÖwZw`‡bi mvÿx| mf¨Zv‡K †cQ‡b †d‡j mevB weK…wZi w`‡K nuvU‡Q| GK`j be¨ AvaywbKZvev`x c_ †`Lv‡bvi ‡Póv Ki‡Q| ag© wKsev cvw_©e GB Dfq m¤úª`vqB Zv‡`i ‡Lqvj Øviv cwiPvwjZ| Zviv g‡b K‡i Zviv me Rv‡b| g~jZt Zviv wKQzB Rv‡b bv| lv‡Ui `k‡Ki ci Avgv‡`i mgvR †_‡K wkÿv wbf©i ms¯‥…wZ wbe©vwmZ n‡q‡Q| Gi ci hv wKQz n‡q‡Q Zv ïayB A_©nxb| Gme Av‡R ev‡R K_v hviv wjL‡Q Zviv †Kv‡bv gZ wKsev c‡_i bq| a‡g©i cÖv_wgK w`K¸‡jv‡Z hviv wkÿv ‡c‡Z e¨_© n‡q‡Q ZvivB mewKQz Zvj‡Mvj cvwK‡q †d‡j‡Q| Zv †m fzj ag© d‡jvqviB †nvK A_ev Zvi cÖwZev`KvixB †nvK| 45
gvIjvbv fvmvbx Rvwb ‡q w`‡qwQ‡jb Avwg †Kvb Kv‡jB mgvRZšx¿ wQjvg bv| A_P mgvRZš¿xiv Zv‡K Zv‡`i fv‡M wb‡q wb‡jv| Bmjvg Avi mgvRZ‡š¿i wK GKmv‡_ c_Pjv m¤¢e| `y‡Uv wfbœ weavb| GKUv Avjøvn cÖ`Ë Øxb| c‡bik eQi a‡i weivRgvb| cwiwgZ Avi cwiï×| GKUv gvÎ beŸB eQ‡iB DavI| Avgiv G‡`i Df‡qi GKUv wg‡kj •Zwi Ki‡Z †Póv Kijvg| GUv KLbIB m¤¢e bq| nq Avgv‡`i `ywbqvex n‡Z n‡e| bq‡Zv cvi‡j․wKK| `y‡Uvi weavb Avjv`v| wm×všÍ hvi hvi| mgq bvgK e¯‘ c„w_ex‡Z Acwi‡gq bq| Zv‡K †eu‡a †`Iqv n‡q‡Q| Avgv‡`i GB mg‡qi g‡a¨ wm×všÍ wb‡Z n‡e| jÿ¨ wba©viY Ki‡Z n‡e| †Kvb cÖKvi weK„wZB MªnY‡hvM¨ bq| a‡g©i bv‡g gvbyl‡K Avµgb wKsev AvaywbKZvi bv‡g weK…Z ms¯‥…wZi w`‡K †QvUv `y‡UvB DMÖcš’v| msmv‡i, mgv‡R, iv‡óª me©Î fveevi AeKvk Av‡Q wK nIqv DwPZ jÿ¨gvÎv| wK nIqv DwPZ MÖnY‡hvM¨ weavb| Avgvi g‡b nq †mB mgq GLbI dzwi‡q hvqwb| me‡P‡q fqven welq n‡”Q Avgv‡`i Ziæb cÖRb¥| Giv AvR G‡Kev‡iB w`K wb‡`©kbvnxb| cvwievwiK Rxe‡bi AkvwšÍi wkKvi GB mgvR ‡Kvgj Avi Amnvq nwib kve‡Ki g‡Zv wns¯ª evN ev wms‡ni Là‡i c‡o hv‡”Q mZ¨Pz¨Z nIqvi Kvi‡b| avàvevR ag© e¨emvqx wKsev be¨ AvaywbKZvev`xiv Abvqv‡m Zv‡`i Là‡i wb‡q wb‡”Q| me wgwj‡q Zviv AvR w`‡knviv| Zv‡`i mwVK wkÿvq wkwÿZ Kiv DwPZ wQ‡jv| Bswjk wgwWqvg 46
¯‥zj Avi cÖvB‡fU BDwbfvwm©wUi Pvi †`Iqv‡ji †fZ‡i AvUKv c‡o Zviv †h †Kv_vq hv‡”Q Zv Zviv wb‡RivI Rv‡b bv| Zv‡`i‡K iÿv Kivi GLbB mgq| me‡P‡q eo †hUv mgm¨v Zv n‡jv AvšÍR©vwZK Myiæ‡`i †`Iqv †cÖmwµckb| †mB †cÖmwµckb‡K ZvweR evwb‡q †L‡Z †L‡Z Avgiv AvR w`‡knviv, weåvšÍ| Avgv‡`i Øxb, `ywbqv meB hvIqvi †RvMvo| Zv‡`i †PvL iv½vwb Avi fq i‡Üª i‡Üª Kz‡o Kz‡o Lvq| gy‡L ¯^xKvi bv Ki‡jI Avgiv Avgv‡`i ¸iæ‡`i f‡q Zv‡`i weiæ‡× cÖwZev` Kivi mvnm Avgv‡`i †bB| Avgv‡`i Ny‡i `uvov‡bvi g‡Zv ‣bwZK mvnm Avgiv nvwi‡q †d‡jwQ| RvwZ wnmv‡e GUvB n‡”Q me‡P‡q eo msKU| Avgiv KLbI Avgv‡`i wb‡R‡`i wm×všÍ wb‡Riv wb‡Z cvwi bv| 47
Igi Lv ‡j` iæwgi cÖKvwkZ MÖš’mg~n Dcb¨vm 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. bxZzi †Pv‡L Rj ¯^‡cœi D‡ëvwcV Avgvi Ag„Z mËv †mjwd K‡ói K¨v¤úvm Avkvq Zzwg wbivkvqI Zzwg fv‡jvevmv fv‡jv bq †RvbvwKi Mí 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. KweZv wbe©vm‡b †cÖg KvMR †Quovi †Ljv Kvjvi Ae †ivR †n‡j‡bi KweZvi LvZv KvPN‡i Avwg A‡j․wKK `nb GKw`b †cÖg G‡m nVvr `‡ivRvq Kov †b‡owQj Zvivi wb‡P nuvUvnuvwU ‡Zvgvi Avqbvq Avgvi gyL bvRyK †cÖ‡gi c`¨ GB †cÖg †Zvgvi Avgvi G mg‡qi †cÖ‡gi KweZv wel KweZv 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. †QvU Mí †mvbvjx w`‡bi †mvbvjx evwjKviv †n‡jb‡K Avwg fv‡jv‡e‡mwQjvg Rjgnj GÛ Av`vi †óvwim †m Avm‡e K…òP~ov I Ab¨vb¨ †cÖ‡gi Mí Kzqvkvi Kvdb myKvšÍi nv‡Z wZbwU †Mvjvc nviv‡bv PvweIqvjv GB kn‡i †Zvgvi KLbI †cÖg nqwb kZvãxi †m․if 48
1 . 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. ivR‰bwZK `¨ wn÷wi Ae BwÛqvb gymwjgm ¯^vaxbZv GKw`‡b Av‡mwb e½eÜz I evsjv‡`k RbM‡Yi bq‡bi gwb Rb‡bZv †kL nvwmbv Avgv‡`i AvMvgxi †bZv mwRe Iqv‡R` Rq evsjvi ivRbxwZi †mKvj GKvj ¯^vaxbZvi 44 eQi : wd‡i ‡`Lv evsjv‡`k cwjwUK¨vj G‡mm Ab BwÛqv, cvwK¯Ívb GÛ evsjv‡`k ZvwË¡K we‡køl‡Y Avgv‡`i ¯^vaxbZv msMÖvg gyw³hy‡×i `wjjcÎ e¨vswKs 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. †gvWm Ae BmjvwgK Bb‡f÷‡g›U GÛ BUm †KvqvwjwU M‡í M‡í e¨vswKs †Rbv‡ij e¨vswKs †Møvmvix BmjvwgK e¨vswKs †Møvmvix G Uz †RW e¨vswKs †Møvmvix di Aj Bmy¨m Ad BmjvwgK dvBb¨vÝ GÛ e¨vswKs BmjvwgK e¨vswKs G‡KvwWs Uz gvKvwm` Avj kwiqvn Abyev` 1. mdj g¨v‡bRvi 2. Avgvi welbœ †cÖqmx‡`i Mí Ab¨vb¨ 1. Avgvi h‡Zv †cÖg 2. wddwU eyKm `¨vU †PÄ `¨ Iqvì© Igi Lv‡j` iæwg 01711-737522 01716-681048 49
cwiwk ó -1 K‡Y©j Zv‡n‡ii Kb¨v Rqv Zv‡n‡ii †jLv wPwV দল ( ১৯৭১ লর আর ল এ দ) এর র দ র র এ র , র লর ৩১ ১৯৭২ দর র ল দ র আ র ১৯৭৫ র র র ল খ র র ল ল দ দ র র ল র দর র , র , দর দর র , র রদ ল র র এ এ দর র র র দর দ ও এর এ র এ দ আ র র এ দল দ র র র খ দ র র ল র র র দ খ র র রর রও ১৯৯০ লর ল ? রর আ র র ল র, আ র , দর ল দ দর র আ র র র ল র ? , ? র র ৭ লও র র র ল, রর র ল র আর র র র র , র রর দ - ল, এ এ দল দর আ দ আ র র , দ লর দ ও । র র র র দখ দর , 50 , র র দ
আ দর দখ র রর আ র এ র দর র দর র, ল দ এ র এ র ল র এ দ আ লর এ র দর ল এ দর দর ল র র এ দ আ র দর র র খ র, আদ ল র আ র আও আ এ দ দর , এ র র এ র র র র ল দ র খ র র ও আ র খ ও এ , র ও ল দর দখ র ল র দর দ দ দ এ র দ লর র , র , র দ ল দ র দ দ দ র , , র র র ল র আ দর র র র রআ র দ খ , র দ র র র দ এ দ র ল র দর , এখ র এ আ দর র র র দ রর , আ র রআ র আ , দ র দ দর আ র র রল এ রএ ল র দর এর দ লও লআ ল রও র র দ র এ দ খ ল ল র র ‗ , ও র র দ আ র খ দর আ র দ খ , র এ র ও ল দর ল , - আ র - র ল 51 - -
ল দর এ র দ আ আ র ‘ ১৯৭৬ লর ২১ ল ল র র র র দ লর , র দর দ র এ দ র র র আ দর ও , আ দর আ দর আ দর ও ল - ল র ল র র , আ দর র , ল র ও ল ল র , দর আ র রআ র আ র র দ দ খ এ আ দ র র রর র ল এ আ দর দ আ র ,এ আ দর লখ রর র র আ দর আ দ র দ র দর আ র র দর দ রআ দ দর আ রর এর র র র দর আ ল , র আর র ? আ র এ দর র র লর দর র আ র এ ? র র র লর দর এ র ও র , আ র দ 52 র দ
cwiwk ó -2 The Zhdanov Doctrine and the Cominform On 22 September 1947, delegates from the Communist Parties of the Soviet Union, Poland, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Italy and France gathered near Warsaw and created the Cominform, an information bureau located in Belgrade. It quickly became the Communist movement‘s agent for spreading its ideology through its newspaper For a lasting peace, for a people‘s democracy. Presented as a ‗revival‘ of the Comintern, the Cominform actually served as an instrument for the USSR to keep close control over Western Communist parties. The aim was to close ranks around Moscow and to ensure that European Communists were in line with Soviet policies. Tito‘s Yugoslavia, accused of deviationism, would soon be excluded from the Cominform. Andrei Zhdanov, the Soviet delegate, ideologist in the CPSU and Stalin‘s right-hand man, persuaded the participants in the constitutive meeting to approve the doctrine according to which the world was now divided into two irreconcilable camps: an ‗imperialist and antidemocratic‘ camp led by the United States and an ‗antiimperialist and democratic‘ camp led by the USSR. This doctrine was the Soviet response to the Truman Doctrine. Zhdanov condemned imperialism and colonisation but advocated ‗new democracy‘. He emphasised the fact that the anti-imperialist bloc across the world relied on the democratic workers‘ movement, on Communist parties and on those involved in liberation movements in colonial countries. In 1947, the world therefore became bipolar, divided into two 53
conflicting blocs . Then in January 1949, in response to the Marshall Plan, the USSR created a programme of economic cooperation with the Soviet bloc countries known as the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA or Comecon). 54
cwiwk ó -3 THE ROOTS OF MUSLIM RAGE Bernard Lewis In one of his letters Thomas Jefferson remarked that in matters of religion "the maxim of civil government" should be reversed and we should rather say, "Divided we stand, united, we fall." In this remark Jefferson was setting forth with classic terseness an idea that has come to be regarded as essentially American: the separation of Church and State. This idea was not entirely new; it had some precedents in the writings of Spinoza, Locke, and the philosophers of the European Enlightenment. It was in the United States, however, that the principle was first given the force of law and gradually, in the course of two centuries, became a reality. If the idea that religion and politics should be separated is relatively new, dating back a mere three hundred years, the idea that they are distinct dates back almost to the beginnings of Christianity. Christians are enjoined in their Scriptures to "render ... unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's and unto God the things which are God's." While opinions have differed as to the real meaning of this phrase, it has generally been interpreted as legitimizing a situation in which two institutions exist side by side, each with its own laws and chain of authority—one concerned with religion, called the Church, the other concerned with politics, called the State. And since they are two, they may be joined or separated, subordinate or independent, and conflicts may arise between them over questions of demarcation and jurisdiction. 55
This formulation of the problems posed by the relations between religion and politics , and the possible solutions to those problems, arise from Christian, not universal, principles and experience. There are other religious traditions in which religion and politics are differently perceived, and in which, therefore, the problems and the possible solutions are radically different from those we know in the West. Most of these traditions, despite their often very high level of sophistication and achievement, remained or became local—limited to one region or one culture or one people. There is one, however, that in its worldwide distribution, its continuing vitality, its universalist aspirations, can be compared to Christianity, and that is Islam. Islam is one of the world's great religions. Let me be explicit about what I, as a historian of Islam who is not a Muslim, mean by that. Islam has brought comfort and peace of mind to countless millions of men and women. It has given dignity and meaning to drab and impoverished lives. It has taught people of different races to live in brotherhood and people of different creeds to live side by side in reasonable tolerance. It inspired a great civilization in which others besides Muslims lived creative and useful lives and which, by its achievement, enriched the whole world. But Islam, like other religions, has also known periods when it inspired in some of its followers a mood of hatred and violence. It is our misfortune that part, though by no means all or even most, of the Muslim world is now going through such a period, and that much, though again not all, of that hatred is directed against us. We should not exaggerate the dimensions of the problem. The Muslim world is far from unanimous in its rejection of the West, nor have the Muslim regions of the Third 56
World been the most passionate and the most extreme in their hostility . There are still significant numbers, in some quarters perhaps a majority, of Muslims with whom we share certain basic cultural and moral, social and political, beliefs and aspirations; there is still an imposing Western presence—cultural, economic, diplomatic—in Muslim lands, some of which are Western allies. Certainly nowhere in the Muslim world, in the Middle East or elsewhere, has American policy suffered disasters or encountered problems comparable to those in Southeast Asia or Central America. There is no Cuba, no Vietnam, in the Muslim world, and no place where American forces are involved as combatants or even as "advisers." But there is a Libya, an Iran, and a Lebanon, and a surge of hatred that distresses, alarms, and above all baffles Americans. At times this hatred goes beyond hostility to specific interests or actions or policies or even countries and becomes a rejection of Western civilization as such, not only what it does but what it is, and the principles and values that it practices and professes. These are indeed seen as innately evil, and those who promote or accept them as the "enemies of God." This phrase, which recurs so frequently in the language of the Iranian leadership, in both their judicial proceedings and their political pronouncements, must seem very strange to the modern outsider, whether religious or secular. The idea that God has enemies, and needs human help in order to identify and dispose of them, is a little difficult to assimilate. It is not, however, all that alien. The concept of the enemies of God is familiar in preclassical and classical antiquity, and in both the Old and New Testaments, as well as in the Koran. A particularly relevant version of the idea occurs in the dualist religions of ancient Iran, whose cosmogony 57
assumed not one but two supreme powers . The Zoroastrian devil, unlike the Christian or Muslim or Jewish devil, is not one of God's creatures performing some of God's more mysterious tasks but an independent power, a supreme force of evil engaged in a cosmic struggle against God. This belief influenced a number of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish sects, through Manichaeism and other routes. The almost forgotten religion of the Manichees has given its name to the perception of problems as a stark and simple conflict between matching forces of pure good and pure evil. The Koran is of course strictly monotheistic, and recognizes one God, one universal power only. There is a struggle in human hearts between good and evil, between God's commandments and the tempter, but this is seen as a struggle ordained by God, with its outcome preordained by God, serving as a test of mankind, and not, as in some of the old dualist religions, a struggle in which mankind has a crucial part to play in bringing about the victory of good over evil. Despite this monotheism, Islam, like Judaism and Christianity, was at various stages influenced, especially in Iran, by the dualist idea of a cosmic clash of good and evil, light and darkness, order and chaos, truth and falsehood, God and the Adversary, variously known as devil, Iblis, Satan, and by other names. The Rise of the House of Unbelief In Islam the struggle of good and evil very soon acquired political and even military dimensions. Muhammad, it will be recalled, was not only a prophet and a teacher, like the founders of other religions; he was also the head of a polity and of a community, a ruler and a soldier. Hence his struggle involved a state and its armed forces. If the fighters in the war for Islam, the holy war "in the path of 58
God ," are fighting for God, it follows that their opponents are fighting against God. And since God is in principle the sovereign, the supreme head of the Islamic state—and the Prophet and, after the Prophet, the caliphs are his vicegerents—then God as sovereign commands the army. The army is God's army and the enemy is God's enemy. The duty of God's soldiers is to dispatch God's enemies as quickly as possible to the place where God will chastise them—that is to say, the afterlife. Clearly related to this is the basic division of mankind as perceived in Islam. Most, probably all, human societies have a way of distinguishing between themselves and others: insider and outsider, in-group and out-group, kinsman or neighbor and foreigner. These definitions not only define the outsider but also, and perhaps more particularly, help to define and illustrate our perception of ourselves. In the classical Islamic view, to which many Muslims are beginning to return, the world and all mankind are divided into two: the House of Islam, where the Muslim law and faith prevail, and the rest, known as the House of Unbelief or the House of War, which it is the duty of Muslims ultimately to bring to Islam. But the greater part of the world is still outside Islam, and even inside the Islamic lands, according to the view of the Muslim radicals, the faith of Islam has been undermined and the law of Islam has been abrogated. The obligation of holy war therefore begins at home and continues abroad, against the same infidel enemy. Like every other civilization known to human history, the Muslim world in its heyday saw itself as the center of truth and enlightenment, surrounded by infidel barbarians whom it would in due course enlighten and civilize. But between the different groups of barbarians there was a 59
crucial difference . The barbarians to the east and the south were polytheists and idolaters, offering no serious threat and no competition at all to Islam. In the north and west, in contrast, Muslims from an early date recognized a genuine rival—a competing world religion, a distinctive civilization inspired by that religion, and an empire that, though much smaller than theirs, was no less ambitious in its claims and aspirations. This was the entity known to itself and others as Christendom, a term that was long almost identical with Europe. The struggle between these rival systems has now lasted for some fourteen centuries. It began with the advent of Islam, in the seventh century, and has continued virtually to the present day. It has consisted of a long series of attacks and counterattacks, jihads and crusades, conquests and reconquests. For the first thousand years Islam was advancing, Christendom in retreat and under threat. The new faith conquered the old Christian lands of the Levant and North Africa, and invaded Europe, ruling for a while in Sicily, Spain, Portugal, and even parts of France. The attempt by the Crusaders to recover the lost lands of Christendom in the east was held and thrown back, and even the Muslims' loss of southwestern Europe to the Reconquista was amply compensated by the Islamic advance into southeastern Europe, which twice reached as far as Vienna. For the past three hundred years, since the failure of the second Turkish siege of Vienna in 1683 and the rise of the European colonial empires in Asia and Africa, Islam has been on the defensive, and the Christian and post-Christian civilization of Europe and her daughters has brought the whole world, including Islam, within its orbit. For a long time now there has been a rising tide of rebellion against this Western paramountcy, and a desire to reassert Muslim values and restore Muslim greatness. 60
The Muslim has suffered successive stages of defeat . The first was his loss of domination in the world, to the advancing power of Russia and the West. The second was the undermining of his authority in his own country, through an invasion of foreign ideas and laws and ways of life and sometimes even foreign rulers or settlers, and the enfranchisement of native non-Muslim elements. The third—the last straw—was the challenge to his mastery in his own house, from emancipated women and rebellious children. It was too much to endure, and the outbreak of rage against these alien, infidel, and incomprehensible forces that had subverted his dominance, disrupted his society, and finally violated the sanctuary of his home was inevitable. It was also natural that this rage should be directed primarily against the millennial enemy and should draw its strength from ancient beliefs and loyalties. Europe and her daughters? The phrase may seem odd to Americans, whose national myths, since the beginning of their nationhood and even earlier, have usually defined their very identity in opposition to Europe, as something new and radically different from the old European ways. This is not, however, the way that others have seen it; not often in Europe, and hardly ever elsewhere. Though people of other races and cultures participated, for the most part involuntarily, in the discovery and creation of the Americas, this was, and in the eyes of the rest of the world long remained, a European enterprise, in which Europeans predominated and dominated and to which Europeans gave their languages, their religions, and much of their way of life. For a very long time voluntary immigration to America was almost exclusively European. There were indeed some who came from the Muslim lands in the Middle 61
East and North Africa , but few were Muslims; most were members of the Christian and to a lesser extent the Jewish minorities in those countries. Their departure for America, and their subsequent presence in America, must have strengthened rather than lessened the European image of America in Muslim eyes. In the lands of Islam remarkably little was known about America. At first the voyages of discovery aroused some interest; the only surviving copy of Columbus's own map of America is a Turkish translation and adaptation, still preserved in the Topkapi Palace Museum, in Istanbul. A sixteenth-century Turkish geographer's account of the discovery of the New World, titled The History of Western India, was one of the first books printed in Turkey. But thereafter interest seems to have waned, and not much is said about America in Turkish, Arabic, or other Muslim languages until a relatively late date. A Moroccan ambassador who was in Spain at the time wrote what must surely be the first Arabic account of the American Revolution. The Sultan of Morocco signed a treaty of peace and friendship with the United States in 1787, and thereafter the new republic had a number of dealings, some friendly, some hostile, most commercial, with other Muslim states. These seem to have had little impact on either side. The American Revolution and the American republic to which it gave birth long remained unnoticed and unknown. Even the small but growing American presence in Muslim lands in the nineteenth century—merchants, consuls, missionaries, and teachers—aroused little or no curiosity, and is almost unmentioned in the Muslim literature and newspapers of the time. The Second World War, the oil industry, and postwar developments brought many Americans to the Islamic lands; increasing numbers of Muslims also came to 62
America , first as students, then as teachers or businessmen or other visitors, and eventually as immigrants. Cinema and later television brought the American way of life, or at any rate a certain version of it, before countless millions to whom the very name of America had previously been meaningless or unknown. A wide range of American products, particularly in the immediate postwar years, when European competition was virtually eliminated and Japanese competition had not yet arisen, reached into the remotest markets of the Muslim world, winning new customers and, perhaps more important, creating new tastes and ambitions. For some, America represented freedom and justice and opportunity. For many more, it represented wealth and power and success, at a time when these qualities were not regarded as sins or crimes. And then came the great change, when the leaders of a widespread and widening religious revival sought out and identified their enemies as the enemies of God, and gave them "a local habitation and a name" in the Western Hemisphere. Suddenly, or so it seemed, America had become the archenemy, the incarnation of evil, the diabolic opponent of all that is good, and specifically, for Muslims, of Islam. Why? Some Familiar Accusations Among the components in the mood of anti-Westernism, and more especially of anti-Americanism, were certain intellectual influences coming from Europe. One of these was from Germany, where a negative view of America formed part of a school of thought by no means limited to the Nazis but including writers as diverse as Rainer Maria Rilke, Ernst Junger, and Martin Heidegger. In this perception, America was the ultimate example of civilization without culture: rich and comfortable, 63
materially advanced but soulless and artificial ; assembled or at best constructed, not grown; mechanical, not organic; technologically complex but lacking the spirituality and vitality of the rooted, human, national cultures of the Germans and other "authentic" peoples. German philosophy, and particularly the philosophy of education, enjoyed a considerable vogue among Arab and some other Muslim intellectuals in the thirties and early forties, and this philosophic anti-Americanism was part of the message. After the collapse of the Third Reich and the temporary ending of German influence, another philosophy, even more anti-American, took its place—the Soviet version of Marxism, with a denunciation of Western capitalism and of America as its most advanced and dangerous embodiment. And when Soviet influence began to fade, there was yet another to take its place, or at least to supplement its working—the new mystique of Third Worldism, emanating from Western Europe, particularly France, and later also from the United States, and drawing at times on both these earlier philosophies. This mystique was helped by the universal human tendency to invent a golden age in the past, and the specifically European propensity to locate it elsewhere. A new variant of the old golden-age myth placed it in the Third World, where the innocence of the non-Western Adam and Eve was ruined by the Western serpent. This view took as axiomatic the goodness and purity of the East and the wickedness of the West, expanding in an exponential curve of evil from Western Europe to the United States. These ideas, too, fell on fertile ground, and won widespread support. But though these imported philosophies helped to provide intellectual expression for anti-Westernism and antiAmericanism, they did not cause it, and certainly they do not explain the widespread anti-Westernism that made so 64
many in the Middle East and elsewhere in the Islamic world receptive to such ideas . It must surely be clear that what won support for such totally diverse doctrines was not Nazi race theory, which can have had little appeal for Arabs, or Soviet atheistic communism, which can have had little appeal for Muslims, but rather their common anti-Westernism. Nazism and communism were the main forces opposed to the West, both as a way of life and as a power in the world, and as such they could count on at least the sympathy if not the support of those who saw in the West their principal enemy. But why the hostility in the first place? If we turn from the general to the specific, there is no lack of individual policies and actions, pursued and taken by individual Western governments, that have aroused the passionate anger of Middle Eastern and other Islamic peoples. Yet all too often, when these policies are abandoned and the problems resolved, there is only a local and temporary alleviation. The French have left Algeria, the British have left Egypt, the Western oil companies have left their oil wells, the westernizing Shah has left Iran—yet the generalized resentment of the fundamentalists and other extremists against the West and its friends remains and grows and is not appeased. The cause most frequently adduced for anti-American feeling among Muslims today is American support for Israel. This support is certainly a factor of importance, increasing with nearness and involvement. But here again there are some oddities, difficult to explain in terms of a single, simple cause. In the early days of the foundation of Israel, while the United States maintained a certain distance, the Soviet Union granted immediate de jure recognition and support, and arms sent from a Soviet 65
satellite , Czechoslovakia, saved the infant state of Israel from defeat and death in its first weeks of life. Yet there seems to have been no great ill will toward the Soviets for these policies, and no corresponding good will toward the United States. In 1956 it was the United States that intervened, forcefully and decisively, to secure the withdrawal of Israeli, British, and French forces from Egypt—yet in the late fifties and sixties it was to the Soviets, not America, that the rulers of Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and other states turned for arms; it was with the Soviet bloc that they formed bonds of solidarity at the United Nations and in the world generally. More recently, the rulers of the Islamic Republic of Iran have offered the most principled and uncompromising denunciation of Israel and Zionism. Yet even these leaders, before as well as after the death of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, when they decided for reasons of their own to enter into a dialogue of sorts, found it easier to talk to Jerusalem than to Washington. At the same time, Western hostages in Lebanon, many of them devoted to Arab causes and some of them converts to Islam, are seen and treated by their captors as limbs of the Great Satan. Another explanation, more often heard from Muslim dissidents, attributes anti-American feeling to American support for hated regimes, seen as reactionary by radicals, as impious by conservatives, as corrupt and tyrannical by both. This accusation has some plausibility, and could help to explain why an essentially inner-directed, often anti-nationalist movement should turn against a foreign power. But it does not suffice, especially since support for such regimes has been limited both in extent and—as the Shah discovered—in effectiveness. Clearly, something deeper is involved than these specific grievances, numerous and important as they may be— 66
something deeper that turns every disagreement into a problem and makes every problem insoluble . This revulsion against America, more generally against the West, is by no means limited to the Muslim world; nor have Muslims, with the exception of the Iranian mullahs and their disciples elsewhere, experienced and exhibited the more virulent forms of this feeling. The mood of disillusionment and hostility has affected many other parts of the world, and has even reached some elements in the United States. It is from these last, speaking for themselves and claiming to speak for the oppressed peoples of the Third World, that the most widely publicized explanations—and justifications—of this rejection of Western civilization and its values have of late been heard. The accusations are familiar. We of the West are accused of sexism, racism, and imperialism, institutionalized in patriarchy and slavery, tyranny and exploitation. To these charges, and to others as heinous, we have no option but to plead guilty—not as Americans, nor yet as Westerners, but simply as human beings, as members of the human race. In none of these sins are we the only sinners, and in some of them we are very far from being the worst. The treatment of women in the Western world, and more generally in Christendom, has always been unequal and often oppressive, but even at its worst it was rather better than the rule of polygamy and concubinage that has otherwise been the almost universal lot of womankind on this planet. Is racism, then, the main grievance? Certainly the word figures prominently in publicity addressed to Western, Eastern European, and some Third World audiences. It figures less prominently in what is written and published for home consumption, and has become a generalized and 67
meaningless term of abuse —rather like "fascism," which is nowadays imputed to opponents even by spokesmen for one-party, nationalist dictatorships of various complexions and shirt colors. Slavery is today universally denounced as an offense against humanity, but within living memory it has been practiced and even defended as a necessary institution, established and regulated by divine law. The peculiarity of the peculiar institution, as Americans once called it, lay not in its existence but in its abolition. Westerners were the first to break the consensus of acceptance and to outlaw slavery, first at home, then in the other territories they controlled, and finally wherever in the world they were able to exercise power or influence—in a word, by means of imperialism. Is imperialism, then, the grievance? Some Western powers, and in a sense Western civilization as a whole, have certainly been guilty of imperialism, but are we really to believe that in the expansion of Western Europe there was a quality of moral delinquency lacking in such earlier, relatively innocent expansions as those of the Arabs or the Mongols or the Ottomans, or in more recent expansions such as that which brought the rulers of Muscovy to the Baltic, the Black Sea, the Caspian, the Hindu Kush, and the Pacific Ocean? In having practiced sexism, racism, and imperialism, the West was merely following the common practice of mankind through the millennia of recorded history. Where it is distinct from all other civilizations is in having recognized, named, and tried, not entirely without success, to remedy these historic diseases. And that is surely a matter for congratulation, not condemnation. We do not hold Western medical science in general, or Dr. Parkinson and Dr. Alzheimer in particular, responsible for the diseases they diagnosed and to which they gave their names. 68
Of all these offenses the one that is most widely , frequently, and vehemently denounced is undoubtedly imperialism—sometimes just Western, sometimes Eastern (that is, Soviet) and Western alike. But the way this term is used in the literature of Islamic fundamentalists often suggests that it may not carry quite the same meaning for them as for its Western critics. In many of these writings the term "imperialist" is given a distinctly religious significance, being used in association, and sometimes interchangeably, with "missionary," and denoting a form of attack that includes the Crusades as well as the modern colonial empires. One also sometimes gets the impression that the offense of imperialism is not—as for Western critics—the domination by one people over another but rather the allocation of roles in this relationship. What is truly evil and unacceptable is the domination of infidels over true believers. For true believers to rule misbelievers is proper and natural, since this provides for the maintenance of the holy law, and gives the misbelievers both the opportunity and the incentive to embrace the true faith. But for misbelievers to rule over true believers is blasphemous and unnatural, since it leads to the corruption of religion and morality in society, and to the flouting or even the abrogation of God's law. This may help us to understand the current troubles in such diverse places as Ethiopian Eritrea, Indian Kashmir, Chinese Sinkiang, and Yugoslav Kossovo, in all of which Muslim populations are ruled by non-Muslim governments. It may also explain why spokesmen for the new Muslim minorities in Western Europe demand for Islam a degree of legal protection which those countries no longer give to Christianity and have never given to Judaism. Nor, of course, did the governments of the countries of origin of these Muslim spokesmen ever accord such protection to religions other than their own. In their perception, there is no contradiction in these attitudes. The true faith, based 69
on God 's final revelation, must be protected from insult and abuse; other faiths, being either false or incomplete, have no right to any such protection. There are other difficulties in the way of accepting imperialism as an explanation of Muslim hostility, even if we define imperialism narrowly and specifically, as the invasion and domination of Muslim countries by nonMuslims. If the hostility is directed against imperialism in that sense, why has it been so much stronger against Western Europe, which has relinquished all its Muslim possessions and dependencies, than against Russia, which still rules, with no light hand, over many millions of reluctant Muslim subjects and over ancient Muslim cities and countries? And why should it include the United States, which, apart from a brief interlude in the Muslimminority area of the Philippines, has never ruled any Muslim population? The last surviving European empire with Muslim subjects, that of the Soviet Union, far from being the target of criticism and attack, has been almost exempt. Even the most recent repressions of Muslim revolts in the southern and central Asian republics of the USSR incurred no more than relatively mild words of expostulation, coupled with a disclaimer of any desire to interfere in what are quaintly called the "internal affairs" of the USSR and a request for the preservation of order and tranquillity on the frontier. One reason for this somewhat surprising restraint is to be found in the nature of events in Soviet Azerbaijan. Islam is obviously an important and potentially a growing element in the Azerbaijani sense of identity, but it is not at present a dominant element, and the Azerbaijani movement has more in common with the liberal patriotism of Europe than with Islamic fundamentalism. Such a movement would not arouse the sympathy of the rulers of the Islamic Republic. It might even alarm them, 70
since a genuinely democratic national state run by the people of Soviet Azerbaijan would exercise a powerful attraction on their kinsmen immediately to the south , in Iranian Azerbaijan. Another reason for this relative lack of concern for the 50 million or more Muslims under Soviet rule may be a calculation of risk and advantage. The Soviet Union is near, along the northern frontiers of Turkey, Iran, and Afghanistan; America and even Western Europe are far away. More to the point, it has not hitherto been the practice of the Soviets to quell disturbances with water cannon and rubber bullets, with TV cameras in attendance, or to release arrested persons on bail and allow them access to domestic and foreign media. The Soviets do not interview their harshest critics on prime time, or tempt them with teaching, lecturing, and writing engagements. On the contrary, their ways of indicating displeasure with criticism can often be quite disagreeable. But fear of reprisals, though no doubt important, is not the only or perhaps even the principal reason for the relatively minor place assigned to the Soviet Union, as compared with the West, in the demonology of fundamentalism. After all, the great social and intellectual and economic changes that have transformed most of the Islamic world, and given rise to such commonly denounced Western evils as consumerism and secularism, emerged from the West, not from the Soviet Union. No one could accuse the Soviets of consumerism; their materialism is philosophic—to be precise, dialectical— and has little or nothing to do in practice with providing the good things of life. Such provision represents another kind of materialism, often designated by its opponents as crass. It is associated with the capitalist West and not with the communist East, which has practiced, or at least 71
imposed on its subjects , a degree of austerity that would impress a Sufi saint. Nor were the Soviets, until very recently, vulnerable to charges of secularism, the other great fundamentalist accusation against the West. Though atheist, they were not godless, and had in fact created an elaborate state apparatus to impose the worship of their gods—an apparatus with its own orthodoxy, a hierarchy to define and enforce it, and an armed inquisition to detect and extirpate heresy. The separation of religion from the state does not mean the establishment of irreligion by the state, still less the forcible imposition of an anti-religious philosophy. Soviet secularism, like Soviet consumerism, holds no temptation for the Muslim masses, and is losing what appeal it had for Muslim intellectuals. More than ever before it is Western capitalism and democracy that provide an authentic and attractive alternative to traditional ways of thought and life. Fundamentalist leaders are not mistaken in seeing in Western civilization the greatest challenge to the way of life that they wish to retain or restore for their people. A Clash of Civilizations The origins of secularism in the west may be found in two circumstances—in early Christian teachings and, still more, experience, which created two institutions, Church and State; and in later Christian conflicts, which drove the two apart. Muslims, too, had their religious disagreements, but there was nothing remotely approaching the ferocity of the Christian struggles between Protestants and Catholics, which devastated Christian Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and finally drove Christians in desperation to evolve a doctrine of the separation of religion from the state. Only by depriving religious institutions of coercive 72
power , it seemed, could Christendom restrain the murderous intolerance and persecution that Christians had visited on followers of other religions and, most of all, on those who professed other forms of their own. Muslims experienced no such need and evolved no such doctrine. There was no need for secularism in Islam, and even its pluralism was very different from that of the pagan Roman Empire, so vividly described by Edward Gibbon when he remarked that "the various modes of worship, which prevailed in the Roman world, were all considered by the people, as equally true; by the philosopher, as equally false; and by the magistrate, as equally useful." Islam was never prepared, either in theory or in practice, to accord full equality to those who held other beliefs and practiced other forms of worship. It did, however, accord to the holders of partial truth a degree of practical as well as theoretical tolerance rarely paralleled in the Christian world until the West adopted a measure of secularism in the late-seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. At first the Muslim response to Western civilization was one of admiration and emulation—an immense respect for the achievements of the West, and a desire to imitate and adopt them. This desire arose from a keen and growing awareness of the weakness, poverty, and backwardness of the Islamic world as compared with the advancing West. The disparity first became apparent on the battlefield but soon spread to other areas of human activity. Muslim writers observed and described the wealth and power of the West, its science and technology, its manufactures, and its forms of government. For a time the secret of Western success was seen to lie in two achievements: economic advancement and especially industry; political institutions and especially freedom. Several generations of reformers and modernizers tried to adapt these and 73
introduce them to their own countries , in the hope that they would thereby be able to achieve equality with the West and perhaps restore their lost superiority. In our own time this mood of admiration and emulation has, among many Muslims, given way to one of hostility and rejection. In part this mood is surely due to a feeling of humiliation—a growing awareness, among the heirs of an old, proud, and long dominant civilization, of having been overtaken, overborne, and overwhelmed by those whom they regarded as their inferiors. In part this mood is due to events in the Western world itself. One factor of major importance was certainly the impact of two great suicidal wars, in which Western civilization tore itself apart, bringing untold destruction to its own and other peoples, and in which the belligerents conducted an immense propaganda effort, in the Islamic world and elsewhere, to discredit and undermine each other. The message they brought found many listeners, who were all the more ready to respond in that their own experience of Western ways was not happy. The introduction of Western commercial, financial, and industrial methods did indeed bring great wealth, but it accrued to transplanted Westerners and members of Westernized minorities, and to only a few among the mainstream Muslim population. In time these few became more numerous, but they remained isolated from the masses, differing from them even in their dress and style of life. Inevitably they were seen as agents of and collaborators with what was once again regarded as a hostile world. Even the political institutions that had come from the West were discredited, being judged not by their Western originals but by their local imitations, installed by enthusiastic Muslim reformers. These, operating in a situation beyond their control, using imported and inappropriate methods that they did not fully understand, 74
were unable to cope with the rapidly developing crises and were one by one overthrown . For vast numbers of Middle Easterners, Western-style economic methods brought poverty, Western-style political institutions brought tyranny, even Western-style warfare brought defeat. It is hardly surprising that so many were willing to listen to voices telling them that the old Islamic ways were best and that their only salvation was to throw aside the pagan innovations of the reformers and return to the True Path that God had prescribed for his people. Ultimately, the struggle of the fundamentalists is against two enemies, secularism and modernism. The war against secularism is conscious and explicit, and there is by now a whole literature denouncing secularism as an evil neopagan force in the modern world and attributing it variously to the Jews, the West, and the United States. The war against modernity is for the most part neither conscious nor explicit, and is directed against the whole process of change that has taken place in the Islamic world in the past century or more and has transformed the political, economic, social, and even cultural structures of Muslim countries. Islamic fundamentalism has given an aim and a form to the otherwise aimless and formless resentment and anger of the Muslim masses at the forces that have devalued their traditional values and loyalties and, in the final analysis, robbed them of their beliefs, their aspirations, their dignity, and to an increasing extent even their livelihood. There is something in the religious culture of Islam which inspired, in even the humblest peasant or peddler, a dignity and a courtesy toward others never exceeded and rarely equalled in other civilizations. And yet, in moments of upheaval and disruption, when the deeper passions are stirred, this dignity and courtesy toward others can give way to an explosive mixture of rage and hatred which 75
impels even the government of an ancient and civilized country —even the spokesman of a great spiritual and ethical religion—to espouse kidnapping and assassination, and try to find, in the life of their Prophet, approval and indeed precedent for such actions. The instinct of the masses is not false in locating the ultimate source of these cataclysmic changes in the West and in attributing the disruption of their old way of life to the impact of Western domination, Western influence, or Western precept and example. And since the United States is the legitimate heir of European civilization and the recognized and unchallenged leader of the West, the United States has inherited the resulting grievances and become the focus for the pent-up hate and anger. Two examples may suffice. In November of 1979 an angry mob attacked and burned the U.S. Embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan. The stated cause of the crowd's anger was the seizure of the Great Mosque in Mecca by a group of Muslim dissidents—an event in which there was no American involvement whatsoever. Almost ten years later, in February of 1989, again in Islamabad, the USIS center was attacked by angry crowds, this time to protest the publication of Salman Rushdie's Satanic Verses. Rushdie is a British citizen of Indian birth, and his book had been published five months previously in England. But what provoked the mob's anger, and also the Ayatollah Khomeini's subsequent pronouncement of a death sentence on the author, was the publication of the book in the United States. It should by now be clear that we are facing a mood and a movement far transcending the level of issues and policies and the governments that pursue them. This is no less than a clash of civilizations—the perhaps irrational but surely historic reaction of an ancient rival against our Judeo-Christian heritage, our secular present, and the 76
worldwide expansion of both . It is crucially important that we on our side should not be provoked into an equally historic but also equally irrational reaction against that rival. Not all the ideas imported from the West by Western intruders or native Westernizers have been rejected. Some have been accepted by even the most radical Islamic fundamentalists, usually without acknowledgment of source, and suffering a sea change into something rarely rich but often strange. One such was political freedom, with the associated notions and practices of representation, election, and constitutional government. Even the Islamic Republic of Iran has a written constitution and an elected assembly, as well as a kind of episcopate, for none of which is there any prescription in Islamic teaching or any precedent in the Islamic past. All these institutions are clearly adapted from Western models. Muslim states have also retained many of the cultural and social customs of the West and the symbols that express them, such as the form and style of male (and to a much lesser extent female) clothing, notably in the military. The use of Western-invented guns and tanks and planes is a military necessity, but the continued use of fitted tunics and peaked caps is a cultural choice. From constitutions to Coca-Cola, from tanks and television to T-shirts, the symbols and artifacts, and through them the ideas, of the West have retained—even strengthened— their appeal. The movement nowadays called fundamentalism is not the only Islamic tradition. There are others, more tolerant, more open, that helped to inspire the great achievements of Islamic civilization in the past, and we may hope that these other traditions will in time prevail. But before this issue is decided there will be a hard struggle, in which we of the West can do little or nothing. Even the attempt 77
might do harm , for these are issues that Muslims must decide among themselves. And in the meantime we must take great care on all sides to avoid the danger of a new era of religious wars, arising from the exacerbation of differences and the revival of ancient prejudices. To this end we must strive to achieve a better appreciation of other religious and political cultures, through the study of their history, their literature, and their achievements. At the same time, we may hope that they will try to achieve a better understanding of ours, and especially that they will understand and respect, even if they do not choose to adopt for themselves, our Western perception of the proper relationship between religion and politics. To describe this perception I shall end as I began, with a quotation from an American President, this time not the justly celebrated Thomas Jefferson but the somewhat unjustly neglected John Tyler, who, in a letter dated July 10, 1843, gave eloquent and indeed prophetic expression to the principle of religious freedom: The United States have adventured upon a great and noble experiment, which is believed to have been hazarded in the absence of all previous precedent—that of total separation of Church and State. No religious establishment by law exists among us. The conscience is left free from all restraint and each is permitted to worship his Maker after his own judgement. The offices of the Government are open alike to all. No tithes are levied to support an established Hierarchy, nor is the fallible judgement of man set up as the sure and infallible creed of faith. The Mahommedan, if he will to come among us would have the privilege guaranteed to him by the constitution to worship according to the Koran; and the East Indian might erect a shrine to Brahma if it so pleased him. Such is the spirit of toleration inculcated by our political Institutions.... The Hebrew persecuted and down 78
trodden in other regions takes up his abode among us with none to make him afraid .... and the Aegis of the Government is over him to defend and protect him. Such is the great experiment which we have tried, and such are the happy fruits which have resulted from it; our system of free government would be imperfect without it. The body may be oppressed and manacled and yet survive; but if the mind of man be fettered, its energies and faculties perish, and what remains is of the earth, earthly. Mind should be free as the light or as the air. 79
cwiwk ó -4 Summary of the Treaty of Westphalia The Westphalia area of north-western Germany gave its name to the treaty that ended the Thirty Years' War, one of the most destructive conflicts in the history of Europe. The war or series of connected wars began in 1618, when the Austrian Habsburgs tried to impose Roman Catholicism on their Protestant subjects in Bohemia. It pitted Protestant against Catholic, the Holy Roman Empire against France, the German princes and princelings against the emperor and each other, and France against the Habsburgs of Spain. The Swedes, the Danes, the Poles, the Russians, the Dutch and the Swiss were all dragged in or dived in. Commercial interests and rivalries played a part, as did religion and power politics. Among famous commanders involved were Marshal Turenne and the Prince de Condé for France, Wallenstein for the Empire and Tilly for the Catholic League, and there was an able Bavarian general curiously named Franz von Mercy. Others to play a part ranged from the Winter King of Bohemia to the emperors Ferdinand II and Ferdinand III, Bethlen Gabor of Transylvania, Christian IV of Denmark, Gustavus II Adolphus and Queen Christina of Sweden, the Great Elector of Brandenburg, Philip IV of Spain and his brother the Cardinal-Infante, Louis XIII of France, Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin and several popes. Gustavus Adolphus was shot in the head and killed at the battle of Lutzen in 1632. The increasingly crazed Wallenstein, who grew so sensitive to noise that he had all the dogs, cats and cockerels killed in every town he came to, was murdered by an English captain in 1634. Still the fighting went on. 80
The war was largely fought on German soil and reduced the country to desolation as hordes of mercenaries , left unpaid by their masters, lived off the land. Rapine, pillage and famine stalked the countryside as armies marched about, plundering towns, villages and farms as they went. ‗We live like animals, eating bark and grass,‘ says a pitiful entry in a family Bible from a Swabian village. ‗No one could have imagined that anything like this would happen to us. Many people say that there is no God...‘ Wenceslas Hollar recorded devastation in the war zone in engravings of the 1630s and starvation reached such a point in the Rhineland that there were cases of cannibalism. The horror became a way of life and when the war finally ended, the mercenaries and their womenfolk complained that their livelihood was gone. The peace conference to end the war opened in Münster and Osnabrück in December 1644. It involved no fewer than 194 states, from the biggest to the smallest, represented by 179 plenipotentiaries. There were thousands of ancillary diplomats and support staff, who had to be given housing, fed and watered, and they did themselves well for close to four years, despite famine in the country around. Presiding over the conference were the Papal Nuncio, Fabio Chigi (the future Pope Alexander VII), and the Venetian ambassador. The first six months were spent arguing about who was to sit where and who was to go into a room ahead of whom. The principal French and Spanish envoys never managed to meet at all because the correct protocol could not be agreed. A special postal system handled reams of letters between the envoys and their principals at a time when it took ten days or more to send a communication from Münster to Paris or Vienna and twenty days or more to Stockholm or Madrid. Slowly deals were hammered out. Even then it took almost three weeks just to organise the 81
signing ceremony , which commenced at two o‘clock in the afternoon of Saturday, October 24th, 1648. The treaty gave the Swiss independence of Austria and the Netherlands independence of Spain. The German principalities secured their autonomy. Sweden gained territory and a payment in cash, Brandenburg and Bavaria made gains too, and France acquired most of AlsaceLorraine. The prospect of a Roman Catholic reconquest of Europe vanished forever. Protestantism was in the world to stay. 82
cwiwk ó -5 Summary of the French Reclution Feudalism and Unfair Taxation No one factor was directly responsible for the French Revolution. Years of feudal oppression and fiscal mismanagement contributed to a French society that was ripe for revolt. Noting a downward economic spiral in the late 1700s, King Louis XVI brought in a number of financial advisors to review the weakened French treasury. Each advisor reached the same conclusion—that France needed a radical change in the way it taxed the public—and each advisor was, in turn, kicked out. Finally, the king realized that this taxation problem really did need to be addressed, so he appointed a new controller general of finance, Charles de Calonne, in 1783. Calonne suggested that, among other things, France begin taxing the previously exempt nobility. The nobility refused, even after Calonne pleaded with them during the Assembly of Notables in 1787. Financial ruin thus seemed imminent. The Estates-General In a final act of desperation, Louis XVI decided in 1789 to convene the Estates-General, an ancient assembly consisting of three different estates that each represented a portion of the French population. If the Estates-General could agree on a tax solution, it would be implemented. However, since two of the three estates—the clergy and the nobility—were tax-exempt, the attainment of any such solution was unlikely. Moreover, the outdated rules of order for the EstatesGeneral gave each estate a single vote, despite the fact 83
that the Third Estate —consisting of the general French public—was many times larger than either of the first two. Feuds quickly broke out over this disparity and would prove to be irreconcilable. Realizing that its numbers gave it an automatic advantage, the Third Estate declared itself the sovereign National Assembly. Within days of the announcement, many members of the other two estates had switched allegiances over to this revolutionary new assembly. The Bastille and the Great Fear Shortly after the National Assembly formed, its members took the Tennis Court Oath, swearing that they would not relent in their efforts until a new constitution had been agreed upon. The National Assembly‘s revolutionary spirit galvanized France, manifesting in a number of different ways. In Paris, citizens stormed the city‘s largest prison, the Bastille, in pursuit of arms. In the countryside, peasants and farmers revolted against their feudal contracts by attacking the manors and estates of their landlords. Dubbed the ―Great Fear,‖ these rural attacks continued until the early August issuing of the August Decrees, which freed those peasants from their oppressive contracts. Shortly thereafter, the assembly released the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which established a proper judicial code and the autonomy of the French people. Rifts in the Assembly Though the National Assembly did succeed in drafting a constitution, the relative peace of the moment was shortlived. A rift slowly grew between the radical and moderate assembly members, while the common laborers and workers began to feel overlooked. When Louis XVI was caught in a foiled escape plot, the assembly became especially divided. The moderate Girondins took a stance 84
in favor of retaining the constitutional monarchy , while the radical Jacobins wanted the king completely out of the picture. Outside of France, some neighboring countries feared that France‘s revolutionary spirit would spread beyond French land. In response, they issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which insisted that the French return Louis XVI to the throne. French leaders interpreted the declaration as hostile, so the Girondin-led assembly declared war on Austria and Prussia. The Reign of Terror The first acts of the newly named National Convention were the abolition of the monarchy and the declaration of France as a republic. In January 1793, the convention tried and executed Louis XVI on the grounds of treason. Despite the creation of the Committee of Public Safety, the war with Austria and Prussia went poorly for France, and foreign forces pressed on into French territory. Enraged citizens overthrew the Girondin-led National Convention, and the Jacobins, led by Maximilien Robespierre, took control. Backed by the newly approved Constitution of 1793, Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety began conscripting French soldiers and implementing laws to stabilize the economy. For a time, it seemed that France‘s fortunes might be changing. But Robespierre, growing increasingly paranoid about counterrevolutionary influences, embarked upon a Reign of Terror in late 1793–1794, during which he had more than 15,000 people executed at the guillotine. When the French army successfully removed foreign invaders and the economy finally stabilized, however, Robespierre no longer had any justification for his extreme actions, and he himself was arrested in July 1794 and executed. 85
The Thermidorian Reaction and the Directory The era following the ousting of Robespierre was known as the Thermidorian Reaction , and a period of governmental restructuring began, leading to the new Constitution of 1795 and a significantly more conservative National Convention. To control executive responsibilities and appointments, a group known as the Directory was formed. Though it had no legislative abilities, the Directory‘s abuse of power soon came to rival that of any of the tyrannous revolutionaries France had faced. Napoleon Meanwhile, the Committee of Public Safety‘s war effort was realizing unimaginable success. French armies, especially those led by young general Napoleon Bonaparte, were making progress in nearly every direction. Napoleon‘s forces drove through Italy and reached as far as Egypt before facing a deflating defeat. In the face of this rout, and having received word of political upheavals in France, Napoleon returned to Paris. He arrived in time to lead a coup against the Directory in 1799, eventually stepping up and naming himself ―first consul‖—effectively, the leader of France. With Napoleon at the helm, the Revolution ended, and France entered a fifteen-year period of military rule. 86
cwiwk ó -6 Summary of the Russian Revolution The February Revolution The Russian Revolution of 1917 centers around two primary events: the February Revolution and the October Revolution. The February Revolution, which removed Tsar Nicholas II from power, developed spontaneously out of a series of increasingly violent demonstrations and riots on the streets of Petrograd (present-day St. Petersburg), during a time when the tsar was away from the capital visiting troops on the World War I front. Though the February Revolution was a popular uprising, it did not necessarily express the wishes of the majority of the Russian population, as the event was primarily limited to the city of Petrograd. However, most of those who took power after the February Revolution, in the provisional government (the temporary government that replaced the tsar) and in the Petrograd Soviet (an influential local council representing workers and soldiers in Petrograd), generally favored rule that was at least partially democratic. The October Revolution The October Revolution (also called the Bolshevik Revolution) overturned the interim provisional government and established the Soviet Union. The October Revolution was a much more deliberate event, orchestrated by a small group of people. The Bolsheviks, who led this coup, prepared their coup in only six months. They were generally viewed as an extremist group and had very little popular support when they began serious 87
efforts in April 1917 . By October, the Bolsheviks‘ popular base was much larger; though still a minority within the country as a whole, they had built up a majority of support within Petrograd and other urban centers. After October, the Bolsheviks realized that they could not maintain power in an election-based system without sharing power with other parties and compromising their principles. As a result, they formally abandoned the democratic process in January 1918 and declared themselves the representatives of a dictatorship of the proletariat. In response, the Russian Civil War broke out in the summer of that year and would last well into 1920. A Note on the Russian Calendar Until February 1918, Russia used the Julian calendar, while the Western world used the Gregorian calendar in use today. This convention was dictated by the Russian Orthodox Church, which continues to follow the Julian calendar to this day. During the twentieth century, the Julian calendar fell thirteen days behind the Gregorian calendar. Generally, historians writing about prerevolutionary Russia today cite dates according to the calendar of the time; this book follows the same method. Dates prior to February 1, 1918 use the Julian calendar; dates after that point follow the Gregorian calendar. 88